Organisation Behaviour Transactional Leadership

Question: Examine about the Organization Behavior for Transactional Leadership. Answer: Presentation: For any association to be fruitful there is a prerequisite of an effective administration by a pioneer. Initiative is potentially one of the most noteworthy parts of the executives. It contributes colossally to the prosperity of the associations. It could never be fruitful in the nonattendance an efficacious and moving pioneer who can energize them his/her associates to progress in the direction of accomplishing the objectives of the association (Hand et al., 2015). A few academicians have laid accentuation on two styles of initiative, as the years progressed. One is value-based initiative and the other is transformational administration. Them two have been a well known subject of discussion since quite a long while. Value-based authority styles are engaged with the upkeep of the ordinary progression of procedures. It tends to be delineated as keeping the boat above water. Then again, transformational initiative is proactive and it attempts to adjust the way of life of the associatio n by the execution of new thoughts (McCleskey, 2014). With the assistance of a far reaching study, this paper will distinguish the best administration style, between the two styles of authority. The idea of transformational initiative style was from the start set up by James MacGregor Burns who was an expert of authority and presidential biographer. As indicated by him, transformational initiative can be seen when the pioneers alongside the adherents gain themselves to ground to more significant level of good and energy (Deichmann Stam, 2015). The transformational pioneers draw in with their devotees, lays weight on higher request crucial necessities, and bring issues to light in regards to the significance of exact outcomes alongside new ways by which the outcomes or results may be achieved (Lowe Avolio, 2013). The creators Bass and Riggio explained in their great content Transformational authority that transformational pioneers are the individuals who empower and invigorate their supporters to accomplish the results that are unprecedented in nature and build up their individual limit of administration all the while. These kind of pioneers give help to their adherents to develop and create as pioneers by giving a reaction to the requirements of the individual devotees by engaging them and causing them to line up with the objectives and goals of the individual partners, the gathering, the pioneer, just as the bigger association (Baloch et al., 2014). Value-based pioneers utilize the disciplinary force alongside a scope of affectations to urge the workforce to give their best execution. The term value-based alludes to the truth that this administration style successfully energizes subordinates by methods for offering impetuses or grants for their general execution (Odumeru Ogbonna, 2013). A pioneer, who has value-based administration style as a rule, doesn't anticipate control deliberately an association or organization to a place of market initiative. These pioneers are only worried about guaranteeing that all the tasks stream effectively. These sorts of pioneers know about the relationship between the endeavor and prize. This initiative style is responsive and its direction manages the current issues. The value-based pioneers depend on standard types of remunerations, motivating force, discipline and endorsement to control their supporters. They spur their companions by setting targets and promising motivating forces for the nec essary execution. This administration style relies upon the intensity of the pioneer to fortify the adherents with the goal that they can effectively finish the deal. These kinds of pioneers frequently use specialized information to discover the procedure change. They trade generous motivating forces for their work and steadfastness of the devotees (Deichmann Stam, 2015). Gauges, strategies and rules are important in value-based administration. The companions re not inspired to be imaginative or to find new goals to the issues. An investigation has discovered that value-based administration style tend to be generally solid in conditions where issues are simple and characterized unmistakably. It tends to be powerful in various circumstances and it is viewed as an insufficient and may stop the pioneers just as the adherents to accomplish their total potential (Odumeru Ogbonna, 2013). The advantage of value-based administration style is that it obviously depicts the jobs and convictions of the pioneer just as the adherents. It additionally ensures that the authoritative culture is kept up and the guidelines are followed carefully along with the social standards (Zhu et al., 2012). Alternately, this style of authority implies that failure of conveying the normal yield could prompt the outcomes, for example, nonappearance of extra advantages or rewards, decreases in compensation, or the more awful, terminating. This style of initiative is worried about an immediate methodology and the pioneers expect results from their supporters who successively convey with the exception of in the event that they would prefer not to hold up under the outcomes (Hamstra et al., 2014). As indicated by the methodology of value-based initiative style, the pioneers are in a place of impact since their aptitudes and information is better in examination than the remainder of the colleagues. The models of value-based administration style advance the pioneers in arranging, designating undertakings to the representatives and deciding. Explicit defining of objectives, with intelligible principles for good just as terrible introduction, and unmistakable understandings are made concerning the obligations and desires (Dai et al., 2013). The value-based pioneers consider that the technique for getting staff for execution is by pronouncing clear impetuses and punishments set up. This presumes the adherents will only work for their own personal circumstance, more readily than from a feeling of direction (Odumeru Ogbonna, 2013). Positive criticism is given all through the arrangement, with the aim that the workers perceive whether they are playing out the errands adequately, and when progress is required. This style of authority is ideal for the associations that are built up from quite a while and have found the procedures that lead to the creation of the ideal results or results. In conditions like this, there is much of the time a point by point set of pre-concurred destinations that should be practiced, and the test is the fulfillment of these assignments all the more capably (Hamstra et al., 2014). Then again, the transformational pioneers believe that support through motivating force creates minimal measure of exertion required. For example, for the representatives, their pay is prize and they will essentially make a solid effort to keep up their activity just as pay (Deichmann Stam, 2015). Rather than using grants and punishments as sparks, the endeavor is to help the individuals from the group in understanding and sharing the necessities to get achievement. With a thought of the point in the psyche, the representatives will feel inspired to accomplish it. The venture at that point ends up being an undertaking as opposed to a straightforward procedure. In differentiation with the value-based view in which the pioneer is a specialist, transformational supporters consider each colleague as a specialist. As opposed to being relegated to get guidelines, the individuals from the group have been chosen because of their specialized topic that adds to the general capacity of the grou p. Ever individual from the group is relied upon to invest in amounts of energy during the time spent creation choices and arranging (Zhu et al., 2012). The pioneers having transformational administration style means to change and not to keep up the status. Redundancy of the comparative systems prompts the creation of comparable outcomes; henceforth, new reasoning ways are expected to meet the better and greater goals (Hamstra et al., 2014). The pioneers having a transformational administration style urge the devotees to thoroughly consider of the container, so as to locate the creative methods of working. It can likewise challenge the current culture of the association and present new qualities just as perspectives. This style of authority is generally effective in the associations that are new or in the associations where the old strategies have gone stale and can not, at this point proficient to deliver results (Lowe Avolio, 2013). The basic highlights of a transformational pioneer, as outlined by Dixon in the year 1998, are the key drivers behind proficient practices. His investigation uncovered that the conduct of a pioneer is affected by four components: genuineness, fearlessness, individual qualities and trustworthiness (McCleskey, 2014). The essential power of driving behind useful execution is engaged with the capacity of the pioneer to get related with his/her encounters with transformational practices. One such affiliation is built up which prompts outer change, bringing about the change of the association. For example, when the pioneers start to accept that their work can make a distinction; their motivations surpass over the individual thought processes and are equipped towards everyone's benefit (Deichmann Stam, 2015). A higher inspiration is advanced by transformational initiative style and it additionally improves the nature of presence for the authoritative individuals. Then again, value-based authority style is viewed as a best systems administration of intensity (Baloch et al., 2014). The pioneers who have a transformational administration style are fit for practicing impact in the two essential regions in particular, sympathy and profound thought, that intrigue to the brain just as the heart. Using these influences, a transformational pioneer is equipped for rousing his/her devotees and follows up for their benefit along with the necessities of others. In this authority style, the pioneers comprehend the formative needs of their supporters or accomplices. As indicated by Jung et al. (2009), the pioneers having a transformational authority style are acceptable tutors or adv

Philosophy topic - Persuation paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Reasoning point - Persuation paper - Essay Example to meet I Doc and reason with him, heart to heart, with the contention that, â€Å"evil is to be deserted and subjection holds no reason or worth contrasted with the decency that can be partaken in life.† As Doct Man was riding his bicycle to I Doc’s refuge, the insidious reprobate abruptly showed up in his Doc-portable and cleared him off the street, abducting him. When Doct Man arose, he wound up in the I Doc sanctuary with the villain’s own partners in crime guarding his jail entryway. Abruptly, Doct Man heard the entryway open and the gatekeepers showed up, requesting him to walk to supper to be the visitor of I Doc. As all in the tri-state district knew about the thinking and enticing intensity of Doct Man, it appeared that I Doc had additionally known about his notoriety for being a thinker and needed to check whether he could be persuaded under danger of torment to join the commotion as a component of his group. Doct Man, be that as it may, was sure of his capacity to convince I Doc to the contrary view. As he sat in his seat during supper, I Doc invited Doct Man and apologized for the snatching. He disclosed his arrangement to overcome and enslave the tri-state through the I Slave innovation. Doct Man answered that, â€Å"I dread no man, nor anything in this world, for I can't be hurt by evil.† Amazed, I Doc asked him how this is conceivable. Doct Man answered by saying, â€Å"I am not related to this body, and this body isn't I. As the universe is everlasting, a pattern of cycles, so too am I an endless being, and will endure whatever abhorrent you can gather without faltering in the smallest. My capacity originates from my Soul, interminable and shrewd, and this world is nevertheless a second, a squint of the eye, with regards to my Being. You will debilitate yourself inside days in your abhorrent arrangement. The individuals will rise. Fortifications will originate from abroad. Regardless of the amount you may wish to curb them with your innovation, the desire of the individuals is solid. There are billions prepared to aid the war of protection from I Slave. Be that as it may, only i come here in harmony and let you know

A sales promotion campaign for PG Tips Free Essays

U. K. is one of the world’s biggest tea buyers. We will compose a custom exposition test on A business advancement crusade for PG Tips or then again any comparative theme just for you Request Now Notwithstanding the way that this drink has become right around a national image, the English tea showcase is experiencing significant changes. Thus, so as to endure, specific organizations are constrained to adjust to new patterns. One of the most acclaimed firms working inside this space is PG Tips, an organization which will compose a limited time crusade primarily planned for empowering dark tea utilization. Before beginning to dig into battle subtleties, a depiction of the U.K. tea market could demonstrate incredibly valuable. As indicated by BBC (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hello/uk/4556103.stm), the conventional tea showcase experienced a serious decay somewhere in the range of 2002 and 2004 when the deals for tea packs and free tea diminished by 16% and, individually, 9%. In any case, the business volume of different assortments got a significant lift over a similar period. The things buying in to this hopeful inclination were the home grown and organic product tea which expanded by 30% and the â€Å"specialty† assortments (green tea, dark tea, white tea, oolong tea) which helped deals by half. The upward pattern for the last classification is clarified by the youthful generation’s inclinations and concerns. Looks into have underlined that youths believe tea to be a stylish beverage which prevails with regards to guaranteeing a drawn out wellbeing, simultaneously. Therefore, the new pattern is the normal aftereffect of more beneficial ways of life and higher social needs. A review that was done somewhere in the range of 2002 and 2004 on an example of 25,000 people demonstrated that 80% of Britons drank tea, 70% of the people matured more than 65 drank tea in any event two times every day while the level of adolescents (matured somewhere in the range of 15 and 24) having a similar conduct was 38. Standard tea keeps on having the most elevated offer as far as retail deals (63%) contrasted and natural and organic product teas which represent just 27%. Additionally, the English breakfast tea is the principal decision with regards to the Britons’ inclinations. All in all, tea organizations have lost piece of the overall industry since they have neglected to meet the new generation’s necessities and requirements. This isn't as distracted with keeping up convention all things considered with being solid and in design, simultaneously. Subsequently, if PG Tips needs to help its business, it should concentrate on this market section which appears to acquire and more followers consistently. Also, one could state that the new pattern works for PG’s fundamental goal (advancing dark tea) as â€Å"specialty† assortments are the individuals who have had the most huge increment in the course of the most recent couple of years. Subsequently, the organization will reposition tea marks by concentrating on medical advantages and unique minutes imparted to companions or family while visiting over some tea makes a warm, loosening up air. In this way, tea will be advanced as both normal medication and social song of devotion, going about as a contact among people having a place with a similar gathering. The intended interest group will envelop people matured somewhere in the range of 15 and 45, arranged inside the medium and prevalent social layers and having a normal or unrivaled degree of instruction (or having a place with families which have a normal/predominant degree of training, on account of the most youthful). The crowd will incorporate purchasers and non-customers, simultaneously. The business advancement will be an occasion fit for uncovering tea benefits, and verifiably, accomplishing the campaign’s destinations. In time, tea includes become a propensity inside the structure of the quotidian scene. Purchasing and drinking such refreshment has transformed into a standard which has lost its engaging quality to advertisers. These have wanted to concentrate on new brands of cars, aromas, desserts, etc which are viewed as all the more tempting as far as publicizing. Subsequently, tea has been disregarded and has started to lose piece of the overall industry as any fire stops to consume when not suitably fuelled. Along these lines, PG Tips will attempt to help the favorable circumstances to remember drinking tea (and particularly, dark tea) to Britons. By featuring the effect on wellbeing, the crusade will change from other hot drinks to the PG’s dark tea. In addition, the individuals who as of now are shoppers of this item will feel as a type of veterans who have settled on the correct decision before their less master partners who have found the nature’s wonder later. This end will take care of their inner self and reinforce their reliability to the PG’s items. To summarize, I’d state that the business advancement will unequivocally affect on the two buyers and non-purchasers, in this way figuring out how to build the absolute offer that PG Tips holds in the home tea advertise. The business advancement will comprise of a three-device blend: free examples, retail location shows and a challenge.  Free tests of dark tea packs will be given to clients in general stores and hypermarkets. These will be joined by appealing pamphlets that will underscore the significant medical advantages containing diminished danger of stroke and cardiovascular failures, more grounded safe reaction and quicker recuperation after an unpleasant occasion. So as to accomplish higher believability, fliers should name the exploration foundations which have done the separate investigations †for example The Netherlands National Institute of Public Health and the Environment, the Brigham and Women’s Hospital and so forth (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_benefits_of_tea). Furthermore, in-store promoting will assume a significant job through banners arranged at the store entrance or at the tea racks. These showcases will draw in watchers by proclamations like:† PG Tips thinks about your wellbeing and takes you on a Tea Tour† which will doubtlessly decide clients to understand more. The most effective method to refer to A business advancement battle for PG Tips, Papers

Photography Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Photography - Assignment Example Photo 2-2 shows an image of a lady of the hour. It discusses shooting wedding photos like some other expert without retaking the shots. It’s about energy and afterward getting the correct shot and believing in yourself. In photograph 3-3, shooting on a tripod stand makes the camera still and consistent. This gives an opportunity to catch tack-sharp shots. Along these lines, the nature of the tripod makes considerable progress in guaranteeing one gets shots like a master. So as to get those quality photographs one needs to contribute much on the extras that go with any shooting. In photograph 3-4, it’s about changing the camera settings, yet in addition getting the correct hardware and all the more so what the masters use. Photo 4-2 shows a ball head, which is utilized to situate a camera at any point with one turn of the handle. Like a tripod, a great ball head accompanies a value which is worth. Photograph 5-2 portrays how a discharge link permits one to get a tack-sharp shot. The link is appended to the camera and after squeezing of the catch the photograph is taken without essentially squeezing the screen on the camera which would some way or another trade off the sharpness of your photographs. Photograph 5-3 subtleties the B&H as confided in vendors in camera and all extras as a result of their expert picture takers who offer the best guidance and have less expensive greater quality items that meet a photographer’s needs consummately. Another method of getting a sharp photograph, particularly in the field is utilizing â€Å"The Death Grip’. As delineated in photograph 6, holding a camera with the tie turned on one’s arm and folding it over the wrist gives additional solidness and subsequently clear

Australia Essays (1835 words) - Atmospheric Sciences, Earth, Water

Australia Australia The name of Australia originates from the Latin word Australis, which implies southern. Since it lies completely in the southern side of the equator, Australia is most regularly alluded to as down under. Australia, being a nation, is likewise a mainland. In land territory it's the 6th biggest for a nation and the littlest landmass. Australia is a dry, meagerly populated nation. Not many seaside zones get enough precipitation to help a huge populace. The biggest gathering of Australian individuals live in two huge urban communities, Sydney and Melbourne. The immense inside is for the most part desert or field and there are not many settlements. Overall, the nation has a thickness of six individuals for each square mile. The down under is celebrated for immense all the way open spaces, brilliant daylight, two-piece clad wonders, gigantic quantities of sheep what's more, steers, and strange natural life. Kangaroos, Koalas, platypuses, and wombats are a couple of the suggestive creatures that live here. Australia was initially settled by Great England as a jail province in the late 1700's, so now most Australian individuals are of British lineage. The workers brought all the traditions as well, such as driving on the left half of the street and their preferred warm beverage, tea. They additionally communicate in English as the official language with their own Australian terms. Atmosphere The northern third of the Australian landmass lies in the tropics and is warm or hot all year. The remainder of the nation lies south of the tropics and has warm summers and mellow cool winters. The precipitation is regular in Australia. In the wet season, substantial storms and rough tempests cause floods. In any case, the dry seasons that plague the country are unmistakably more genuine than any flood. Pretty much every segment of Australia has a dry spell in the dry season. These dry spells cause extreme water deficiencies furthermore, cause the requirement for emotional preservation laws just as dry spells there is additionally wildfires. Streams in Australia are one of its most fundamental assets. They flexibly the urban communities and towns with the truly necessary water. They likewise flexibly the homesteads with water system water. In spite of the fact that the waterways are dry the vast majority of the year, dams and repositories keep water during the dry season. Australia can fundamentally be part into 3 parts-the eastern good countries, focal swamps, and the western level. The good countries comprise for the most part of high levels what's more, broken-in places by slopes, low mountain edges, and canyons. Grasses or on the other hand woodland spread the vast majority of the levels, however some have ripe grounds for crops. The southern part is in all probability the most intensely populated part taking all things together Australia, from Brisbane to Melbourne. In the southern district lie the Australian Alps. The Murray River, Australia's just waterway that continually spills out of the Alps, is the longest waterway. Australia's second significant locale, the focal swamps, is commonly a level region with rare precipitation along the north what's more, south drifts and close to the eastern good countries. Ranchers in the southern district develop wheat however the vast majority of the locale is to hot or to dry for crops. Anyway the course grass or bushes that spread the land make it reasonable for domesticated animals. The two huge towns in the district have less than 30,000 individuals. Australia's third significant district, the western level, covers the western 66% of Australia. A huge, dry, treeless level stretches out around 400 miles along the districts southern edge; while the focal part is for the most part desert. A ton of the desert region comprises of twirling sands that frequently float into mammoth ridges. In places the desert offers approach to land secured by grass and bushes. Brushing domesticated animals can at that point utilize the land. The north and south has the locales heaviest precipitation. The locales two biggest urban areas are Adelaide and Perth. The Outback The shrubbery, as the Australians call it, alludes to the open country. The term outback alludes explicitly to the inside of the nation, with is mostly open field including immense regions of brushing land. Around 13 percent of Australia's kin live in these provincial zones. Numerous individuals live very separated lives on sheep and steers farms called stations. The absolute biggest stations spread more than 1,000 square miles from the closest town. The outback has hardly any cleared streets so travel via vehicle is troublesome or unthinkable. Floods once in a while shut down streets for quite a long time at once. Most affluent homestead families own a light plane, which they use to venture out to town. Different families reach town just a couple of times each year making it hard to look after necessities. The biggest settlements in provincial Australia are generally spread towns that have created to help mining towns. For model, Kalgoorie, a town in western Australia, is the focal point of Australia's significant gold and nickel fields. The

5 Strategies for Discovering How to Forgive

5 Strategies for Discovering How to Forgive January 21, 2020 Cultura/Attia-Fotografie/Riser/Getty Images More in Stress Management Relationship Stress Effects on Health Management Techniques Situational Stress Job Stress Household Stress Although forgiveness brings many benefits, particularly to the ‘forgiver,’ to forgive is not always easy. In fact, many people who would like to let go of anger and forgive are stumped with the question of how to forgive. While everyone may have a unique perspective on how to forgive, the following strategies have been proven effective for a variety of people. Express Yourself In contemplating how to forgive someone, it may or may not help to express your feelings to the other person. If the relationship is important to you and you would like to maintain it, it may be very useful for you to tell the other personâ€"in non-threatening languageâ€"how their actions affected you (see this article on conflict resolution for tips). If the person is no longer in your life, if you want to cut off the relationship, or if you have reason to believe that things will get much worse if you address the situation directly, you may want to just write a letter and tear it up (or burn it) and move on. It still may help to put your feelings into words as part of letting go. People don’t need to know that you’ve forgiven them; forgiveness is more for you than for the other person. Effective Conflict Resolution Skills Look for the Positive Journaling about a situation where you were hurt or wronged can help you process what happened and move on; however, the way you write about it and what you choose to focus on can make all the difference in how easy it becomes to forgive. Research shows that journaling about the benefits you’ve gotten from a negative situationâ€"rather than focusing on the emotions you have surrounding the event, or writing about something unrelatedâ€"can actually help you to forgive and move on more easily.?? So pick up a pen and start journaling about the silver lining next time you find someone raining on your parade, or keep an ongoing gratitude journal and forgive a little every day. Journaling as an Effective Stress Management Tool Cultivate Empathy While you don’t have to agree with what the other person did to you, when working on how to forgive, it often helps to put yourself in the other person’s shoes. Research has shown that empathy, particularly with men, is associated with forgiveness, and can make the process easier.?? Instead of seeing them as the enemy, try to understand the factors that they were dealing with. Were they going through a particularly difficult time in their lives? Have you ever made similar mistakes? Try to remember the other person’s good qualities, assume that their motives were not to purposely cause you pain (unless you have clear indicators otherwise), and you may find it easier to forgive. Protect Yourself and Move On Youve likely heard the saying: First time, shame on you; second time, shame on me. Sometimes it’s difficult to forgive if you feel that forgiveness leaves you open to future repeats of the same negative treatment. It’s important to understand that forgiveness is not the same as condoning the offending action, and it’s OK (and sometimes vital) to include self-protective plans for the future as part of your forgiveness process. For example, if you have a co-worker who continually steals your ideas, belittles you in front of the group, or gossips about you, such ongoing negative behavior can be difficult to forgive. However, you can make a plan to address the behavior with human resources, move to another department, or switch jobs to get out of the negative situation. Blanket forgiveness of someone who is continuing to hurt you isn’t necessarily a good idea for your emotional health. Letting go of your anger and trying to forgive will bring the benefits of forgiveness without opening you up to further abuse. You don’t need to hold a grudge in order to protect yourself. Get Help If You Need It Sometimes it can be difficult to forget about the past and forgive, particularly if the offending acts were ongoing or traumatic. If you’re still having difficulty knowing how to forgive someone who’s wronged you in a significant way, you may have better success working with a therapist who can help you work through your feelings on a deeper level and personally support you through the process. A Word From Verywell When you’ve been hurt, figuring out how to forgive can be difficult. These strategies should be helpful in your journey of letting go and releasing the stress of the past.

Romanticism And The Process Of Life - Free Essay Example

The mystery of the ceaseless nature of life and death has baffled thinkers, great and small, for millennia. Hundreds of years passed with nothing except speculation to interpret your place in the world, but the spread of the Enlightenment and the idea of scientific reasoning brought a new wave of assumptions to Europe. Men and women started using reason in order to make sense of the world around them. This led to the delegitimizing of what came to encompass the Romantic movement; observation of nature, the sublime, and individual expression; among others. These poets wished to bring back an emphasis on the more indescribable and mysterious aspects of life. Thought and emotion guided their documented experiences, especially when it came to the interpretation of life and death. Although Blake, Shelley, and Keats each discuss the process of aging and resulting death, Blake believes it to be a necessary aspect of nature while Shelley and Keats view it as burdensome. Blake represents the first generation of Romantic poets, who ardently stressed a harmonious relationship between man and nature. The most visible example of this association lies in the collection Songs of Innocence, wherein Blake considers the brightest side of humanity, meaning before the Biblical fall of man. This includes the process of aging and eventual death as, in a perfect relationship between man and nature, growing older is accepted and as much a part of life as the changing of the seasons. No one fights against it or looks with jealousy upon those younger than them. For example, in Echoing Green, a group of children play while the older men and women watch them nostalgically; these elders laugh away care as they look on, but do not reference any feelings of wanting to go back or hold anything against the children, themselves. They recognize that youth must fade (Blake, Echoing Green 10-14). Another aspect of a perfect correlation between man and nature is the joy that comes along with the birth of new life. In Infant Joy, a mother welcomes her child into the world and asks the newborn what she shall be called. The infant replies, I happy am,/ Joy is my name. The mother blesses her child and sings her to sleep, wishing that Sweet joy befall thee! Both poems exhibit instances in which life, at all stages, is cherished and exalted (Blake, Infant Joy 4-12). No worry or sadness exists over the prospect of having to grow old or to bring forth another mouth to feed. Men, women, and children accept their place within the natural order and even celebrate it. Conversely, Songs of Experience, emphasizes the fallen, corrupted aspects of human nature, including the reluctance to accept aging. The subjects of Songs of Experience find themselves to be jealous and hostile towards those who still have their youth. Nursers Song, especially, references ill feelings that the nurse has for the children in her care. Watching the children play on the green triggers a flood of childhood memories for the nurse, causing her face to turn green and pale. She longs for what the children have, youth and the opportunity that it brings. However, the nurse knows that it has already passed her and resents the children for what she cannot have. This is seen through her scolding of their childish ways, Your spring your day, are wasted in play/ And your winter and night in disguise. Her reprimanding not only exhibits a reluctance to age, but also a kind of resentment towards those forces that caused her to grow old (Blake, Nursers Song 1-8). Life, in Songs of Experience, is not revered, but despised. Children are shackled and taught to ignore the inherit freedom of their nature while families fear the idea of new life, as it means a new mouth to feed. For example, in Infant Sorrow, an infant enters the world crying and struggling to a family that does not want her. The parents view the child as a burden on them, a person they will have to support into adulthood (Blake, Infant Sorrow 1-8). The happiness that resulted from the birth of the newborn in Infant Joy, does not appear in this particular poem. It is obvious that the stages of life are not to be celebrated in a world that has been corrupted by man. The two separate collections, Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience exist in order to illustrate the contrast between a pre and post-Biblical fall world. From that point of view, Blakers own thoughts on inequality and the perception of aging shine through. Blake recognizes that the world consists of imperfect people trying to live in correlation with nature, despite their tendency towards folly. Blake, himself, believes in an acceptance of the natural order, including the processes of aging, and acts as a sort of prophet. He tells the youth, and all those reading his poetry, to listen to his words, as many wish to lead others when they should be led (Blake, The Voice of the Ancient Bard 11). The two collections represent the perfect versus the realistic. Blake asserts that the world should be as is described in Songs of Innocence, but Songs of Experience shows that to be false. Humans do not act in accordance with God and nature. They fight against their steady aging and look wi th disdain upon those who are farther away from dying than they. While Blake considers this mindset to be a byproduct of humanityrs corrupted nature, Shelley views aging through the lense of Songs of Experience, burdensome and almost torturous. In To a Skylark, Shelley struggles to encapsulate the immortality of the birdrs song in comparison to the doomed mortality of his, and mankindrs, own. Shelley structured the piece to mimic a prayer. The opening line reads, Hail to thee, blithe spirit! and follows with a praise of the skylarkrs ability to sing such a heavenly song. The speaker then details the fact that the birdrs song is not tainted as the poetrs because it cannot comprehend the pains that accompany human existence. The skylark is not conscience of its own being, let alone its own mortality. Therefore, its song is pure, unaltered, and continuous. In contrast, a man understands the fact that he will die one day and is deeply troubled by his own consciousness. Manrs poetry, even that concerning a happy subject, brims with the knowledge of his own death: We look before and after, And pine for what is not: Our sincerest laughter With some pain is fraught; Our sweetest songs tell of saddest thought (Shelley, To a Skylark 86-90). The speaker continues by asking the skylark to allow him to sing in a similar way, so that The world should listen then, as I am listening now (Shelley, To a Skylark 105). Unlike Blake, Shelley never explicitly references the aging process, but he discusses the prospect of death, itself. Instead of advocating an acceptance of death and its place in the natural order, as Blake does, Shelley questions the consciousness of man. Treating the understanding of aging and death as a curse, he details how a manrs poetry could never match that of a birdrs due to his own comprehension of his impending mortality. He ponders the depth of the knowledge of the skylark, believing that perhaps the bird is cognizant of more than humans. Thou of death must deem/ Things more true and deep/ Than we mortals dream (Shelley, To a Skylark 81-84). Therefore, Shelley claims that the burden of the human existence is not the process of aging and death, but the knowledge of its inevitability. As a fellow member of the second generation of Romantic poets, Keats also views the natural order as taxing and questions his own cognizance. Keatsrs poetry more explicitly references death, as he contracted tuberculosis at a young age. Like Shelley, Keats regards recognition of oners own mortality as true death. In Ode to a Nightingale, he stresses how much he longs for a draught of vintage, hoping to numb his ability to contemplate the greater purpose of life. Keats states that he wants to be left alone with the nightingale to fade away into the forest dim. He hopes to dissolve into the night with the bird, forgetting all knowledge he has of his own impending death. Keats describes the pains and sorrows of the human experience that have escaped the nightingale, as it cannot recognize its own misery (Keats, Ode to a Nightingale 11-20). Both Shelley and Keats look to nature, specifically birds, as representative of the freedom which alludes all of humanity. Doomed to feel and interpret all the sadness life entails, especially death, the poets long to be as the nightingale or the skylark, ignorant of their own pr ecarious nature. Because the birds are not able to foresee their own deaths, their song reaches an immortal significance. The poets voice and message may change, but a birdrs song remains the same from generation to generation. Keats illustrates this when he tells the nightingale, Thou was not born for death, immortal Bird! (Keats, Ode to a Nightingale 71). Aging may be apart of the natural cycle of life, but the knowledge of such a sequence is a significant burden, according to Shelley and Keats. Blake emphasizes the necessity of accepting oners position in life, whether that be a young child or an elderly person. In a pre-Biblical fall, i.e. perfect, society, man and nature should have a harmonious relationship in which humans respect and work within the context of the natural order. This obviously is not actually the case in the outside world. Blake observes that men try to control nature and force it to bend to their whims, proudly thinking it will kneel to them. They feel jealousy and hostility towards those that have the things they once did, such as youth. The world described in Songs of Experience is one that Shelley and Keats try to make sense of. The two poets detail their consciousness of aging and death as burdensome and almost unnecessary. They do not advertise living within the natural order, but instead represent exactly what Blake was arguing against, not accepting your age as part of the everchanging and continuous circle of life.

Article Critique Promoting Mother Infant Book Sharing...

Article Critique 2 Cooper, P., Vally, Z., Cooper, H., Radford, T., Sharples, A., Tomlinson, M., Murray, L. (2014). Promoting Mother-Infant Book Sharing and Infant Attention and Language Development in an Impoverished South African Population: A Pilot Study. Early Childhood Education Journal, 42(2), 143-152. doi:10.1007/s10643-013-0591-8 PURPOSE: This pilot study was completed to see if a successful study in the developed world would extend to an impoverished community in South Africa. The present successful study that was completed in the developed world was about parents sharing of picture books with infants and young children is beneficial for child language and cognitive development and literacy skills. The current pilot study wanted to see whether the mothers in the South Africa communities would accept the parents sharing the picture books with infants and whether this training appeared to have a positive impact on maternal behavior and positive infant outcomes. INTRODUCTION: Around 200 million children in Africa and Asia are not able to achieve their potential due to poverty. The potential is affected in their language, cognitive, and literacy skills. In economically developed countries research has shown that book sharing between infant and mother promotes infant language development and development after infancy. South Africa is a great environment to complete this pilot study because there is a great amount of poverty. METHOD: Trainers: A group of fourShow MoreRelatedParental Grief Essay14598 Words   |  59 Pagesneeding it as a reminder of the child who died. Bereaved parents continue to be parents of the child who died. They will always feel the empty place in their hearts caused by the childs death; they were, and always will be, the loving father and mother of that child. Yet, these parents have to accept that they will never be able to live their lives with or share their love openly with the child. So they must find ways to hold on to the memories. Many bereaved parents come to learn that memoriesRead MoreSupporting the Development of English Literacy in English Language Learners22851 Words   |  92 PagesSUPPORTING THE DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH LITERACY IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS Key Issues and Promising Practices Diane August August Associates Report No. 61 February 2003 This report was published by the Center for Research on the Education of Students Placed At Risk (CRESPAR), a national research and development center supported by a grant (No. R-117-D40005) from the Office of Educational Research and Improvement (OERI), U.S. Department of Education. The content or opinions expressedRead MoreGp Essay Mainpoints24643 Words   |  99 Pagesa. True purpose of sports nowadays b. Sports and Media 8. Foreign Aid a. How effective is Foreign Aid? 9. Migration a. Is migration/having foreigners good? 10. Subjects a. Literature b. History c. Mathematics d. Universal language 11. Businesses a. 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A Brief Research of Christian Science Essay - 775 Words

Christian Science What is Christian Science? Who is Mary Baker Eddy? Where does Christian Science come from? Is Christian Science like Scientology? What are Christian Science beliefs? Why are we here and where do we go when we die? These question may be raised when you hear Christian Science. Christian Science is unique in its own way, it may not seem all that amazing like other religions but Christian Science is truly amazing over all. Some people refer to Christian Science as non-Christian or an a cult, but that’s not true. Christian Science is a religion that formed more slowly than other religions but is still a good religion. Christian Science is a religion that lets you understand God, Jesus Christ, good from evil,†¦show more content†¦Unlike Christian Science, â€Å"in Scientology there is no belief in the Holy Bible, God, or Jesus Christ.† (â€Å"The Differences Between Scientology and Christian Science†). Christian Science and Scientology are not the same in anyway yet people still confuse the two. Christian Science don’t have to many beliefs but they do have words that were left behind for other Christian Scientists. â€Å"Christian Science religion teaches the existence of an all-powerful God and the authority and inspiration of the Bible. Christian Scientists believe in the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus to be essential to human redemption. Mary Baker Eddy taught the belief in one God and unlike traditional orthodox Christianity, described God with the synonyms: Principle, Soul, Mind, Spirit, Life, Truth, and Love.† (â€Å"What is Christian Science?†). â€Å"There is no life, truth, intelligence, nor substance in matter. All is infinite Mind and its infinite manifestation, for God is All-in-all. Spirit is immortal Truth; matter is mortal error. Spirit is the real and eternal; matter is the unreal and temporal. Spirit is God, and man is His image and likeness. Therefore man is not material; he is spiritual.† (SH 468 quoted in â€Å"What is Christian Science?†) According the beliefs of Christian Science, humans are just subjects to the law of matter as long we believe that weShow MoreRelatedThe Controversy Of Eugenics And Genetic Engineering1632 Words   |  7 PagesHowever, in the last 150 years, humanity has made great strides in the science of genetics. In that time, there have been some subjects that have been highly controversial: eugenics and genetic engineering. The history of these topics is colored with ethical and moral quandaries that have been topics for fierce debates since the early 1900s, and they continue to this day. Eugenics was defined by Francis Galton as â€Å"the science which deals with all influences that improve the inborn qualities of aRead MoreArticle Review Old Earth Theory920 Words   |  4 PagesThis document is a journal article review providing a brief synopsis, observed strengths, and observed weaknesses of Doctor Mortenson’s â€Å"The Origin of Old-Earth Geology and its Ramifications for Life in the 21st Century†. This article is not an attack on Christianity or the Christian ideology. This paper is simply an honest attempt to review Mortenson’s information provided, his hypothesis, and venue chosen for Christian Apologetics. Brief Overview and Main Points The Origin of Old-Earth GeologyRead MoreHow Christianity and Science Can Go Together Essay724 Words   |  3 Pagesteens are turning away from Christian churches. The research showed that one-fourth of these skeptical young adults felt that â€Å"Christianity is anti-science† . 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Food Safety Essays - 845 Words

Food Safety Training: Importance and Methodologies The CDC estimates that there are approximately 76 million cases of foodborne illness each year. As a food service professional, it is your job to do everything possible to ensure that the food being served is safe. The factors that ensure food safety are personal hygiene, cleaning and sanitizing, food storage, food preparation methods, holding, reheating, and serving. What is appropriate, necessary, and safe with regard to these factors might mean different things to different people making training imperative, and a thorough training program should include each of these aspects. Equally as important as the content of the training, are the training tools and methods used to†¦show more content†¦Classroom training offers an opportunity for activity-based learning. Activity based learning includes information search, guided discussion, role, play, demonstrations, jigsaw design, training videos DVDs, and games. Each of these activities is discussed below. Information s earch involves putting trainees into small groups and giving them a specific question that they will have to research and discuss. Guided discussion involves asking progressive questions to pull on the trainee’s existing knowledge and any gaps in knowledge are filled in by the trainer. In role-play, a script is created and volunteers are asked to act it out; the skit should depict the right way and wrong way to handle a task; the group of trainees is then asked to discuss what transpired during the role-play. The most effective demonstration model is the Tell/Show/Practice model. Using this model, the trainee is shown how to perform a task, told how to perform the task, and then the trainee is asked to perform the task. Jigsaw design is similar to information search in that it requires trainees to group up into small groups to research a topic and then teach about what they learned. The difference is that one person is taken from each group to form a new group and each pers on within the new group teaches that group about his/her topic. If training videosShow MoreRelatedCommunication and Food Safety2764 Words   |  12 Pagesrestaurant is aware of the food safety issue hence they are supportive toward Barry in his food safety efforts but because of high turnover of employees, eventually food training safety is omitted. It seems like the food safety issue is getting serious when one day Barry stepped into the kitchen and noticed several trays of uncooked meat sitting out in the kitchen area. After all these incidents, he has taken many effort to get employees to be safe in how the handle food. 1. What are the communicationRead MoreFood Safety Essay1069 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿1-What type of hazard could occur by wearing jewelry while preparing food? 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Each year, foodborne illnesses strike 48 million Americans, hospitalizing approximately 128,000 people and killing 3,000 (â€Å"Estimating Foodborne Illness†). Over time, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has implemented various legislations in order to prevent illnesses and reduce risks. In 2011, the Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA) was signed by the President which wa s considered to be a â€Å"historical legislation† (Hamburg). Along the course

Capital Punishment And The Death Penalty - 1995 Words

Capital punishment is an occurrence that often provokes public outcry and public opinions in regards to moral and ethical issues. Each country has their own set of regulations in the way they carry out the death penalty to offenders who receive the death sentence for offences eligible for capital punishment (Eversley Copeland, 2011). Throughout the history of execution, however, there have been changes in the way death sentences are distributed and carried out. Human rights activists have come forward to argue that despite the crimes committed, all people need to enjoy their fundamental right of life and no one has the power to take it away from them (Banner Banner, 2009). In the past, there have been (alleged) offenders, convicted and executed due to death sentencing; many of those offenders maintained their innocence up until the time of their execution. Public opinion seems to be the number one factor influencing death penalty executions against offenders. Many cases, in the far and recent past, have attracted global attention to the justification of why the death penalty is an ineffective way of dealing with offenders (Mooney Lee, (2000). The period between the passing of judgment, for an offender to receive capital punishment, and the actual execution of an offender is usually a prolonged amount of time, which goes against the first principle of the deterrence theory, swiftness of punishments. Introduction Cases of death penalty for people convicted of murderShow MoreRelatedCapital Punishment : The Death Penalty1482 Words   |  6 PagesMrs. McElmoyl 12/12/14 Capital Punishment As stated by former governor of New York, Mario M. Cuomo, Always I have concluded the death penalty is wrong because it lowers us all; it is a surrender to the worst that is in us; it uses a power- the official power to kill by execution- that has never brought back a life, need inspired anything but hate. (Cuomo 1) This is one of the main arguments against capital punishment (also known as the death sentence.) Capital punishment is the ability for a governmentRead MoreThe Death Penalty Of Capital Punishment1480 Words   |  6 Pagesjustice system, such as the death penalty. Capital punishment has been used many times in history all around the world, and it was quite popular. Many people argue that capital punishment is useful in deterring crime and that it is only fair that criminals receive death as punishment for a heinous crime. On the contrary, others see the death penalty as a violation of the 8th amendment. It restricts excessive fines, and it also does not allow cruel and u nusual punishment to be inflicted upon criminalsRead MoreThe Death Penalty And Capital Punishment931 Words   |  4 Pageswritten down (Robert). The death penalty was applied for a particularly wide range of crimes. The Romans also used death penalty for a wide range of offenses. Historically, the death sentence was often handled with torture, and executions, except that it was done in public. In this century, the death penalty, execution or capital punishment, whatever you’d like to refer it as, is the result for committing capital crimes or capital offences and it is not in public. The death penalty has been practiced byRead MoreCapital Punishment And The Death Penalty991 Words   |  4 PagesCapital Punishment Imagine your having a normal morning, eating breakfast doing your normal routine. Suddenly your phone rings and when you answer you hear the worst news possible. One of your family members has just been murdered in cold blood. You cry, mourn, then become angry. You attend the court hearing and you sit less than 20 feet away from the murderer. Do you truly believe this person deserves to live? Or should they face a punishment that is equal to their crime? Some may say CapitalRead MoreThe Death Penalty And Capital Punishment1569 Words   |  7 Pagesthe death penalty also referred to as capital punishment. The death penalty is both useless and harmful to not only criminals but also their potential victims. This paper uses these horrific facts to try and convince the reader that the death penalty should be done away with before it is too late, although that time may have already come. With supporting evidence to support my cause, I hope that the following information sways at least one reader to see the harm of keeping the death penalty an activeRead MoreCapital Punishment : The Death Penalty1410 Words   |  6 PagesCapital Punishment in America In 1976 the Supreme Court of the United States of America ruled the Death Penalty constitutionally permissible. The debate over capital punishment has always been a topic of great controversy. Before the Supreme Court ruling in 1976 America had been practicing capital punishment for centuries. At the current time some states enforce the death penalty, while some do not. There are differences of opinion’s relating to whether or not the death penalty is the proper wayRead MoreCapital Punishment And The Death Penalty1235 Words   |  5 PagesWhat is capital punishment? Why do people support it, but yet people cherish lives? Is it a moral thing to do? Should one be for or against the Death Penalty? Let’s take a look deep into the world of justices and why capital punishment still exists in today’s society. Capital punishment or the death penalty is a federal punishment given to criminals who are convicted of murders. It is the highest law punishment available that c an prevent future murders by developing fear within them. Capital punishmentRead MoreCapital Punishment And The Death Penalty1017 Words   |  5 PagesName: Lucas Falley Topic: Capital Punishment Background: Capital punishment, or the death penalty, has existed for thousands of years. For as long as there has been organized society, the death penalty has existed in numerous cultures and civilizations. Throughout the years the methods have changed, but the use of capital punishment is becoming a pressing matter. Amnesty International reports that there are 140 countries worldwide that have abolished the death penalty, while over 50 countries stillRead MoreThe Death Penalty Is A Capital Punishment1271 Words   |  6 Pages What is the death penalty? The death penalty is a capital punishment that is punishable by death or execution. This is usually given to people that have committed serious offences or capital crimes. There are 31 states in the United States that are for the death penalty. Crimes that are punishable by the death penalty, vary from state to state. Examples of such crimes are; first degree murder or premeditated murder, murder with special circumstances, such as: intende d, multiple, and murder whichRead MoreCapital Punishment And The Death Penalty1539 Words   |  7 PagesCapital punishment, otherwise known as the death penalty, has been the center of debate for a long time. Capital punishment may be defined as the â€Å"[e]xecution of an offender sentenced to death after conviction by a court of law of a criminal offense† (Capital Punishment). Up until 1846, when Michigan became the first to abolish the death sentence, all states allowed legal practice of capital punishment by the government (States). Currently, there 32 states still supporting the death penalty and 18

American International Competitiveness Free Essays

string(151) " industries over others in international trade have been stable and that key industry characteristics, such as labor intensity, have also been stable\." Since the beginning of the 1970s, the United States has experienced a virtual trade revolution. Trade has increased much faster than the economy as a whole. Both imports and exports expanded during the past 15 years. We will write a custom essay sample on American International Competitiveness or any similar topic only for you Order Now In the late 1970s, imports started outstripping exports by historically large margins. A merchandise trade deficit has been present every year since 1976. Moreover, this deficit has increased dramatically in the 1980s. What economic changes underlie the shift in U. S. competitiveness evidenced by the recent trade deficits? While economists who have addressed this question have employed different approaches, most have examined changes in macroeconomic variables to see if they generated the economic pressures that led to the recent trade deficits. Economists who have employed this approach have generally concluded that macroeconomic changes probably are the cause of the recent deficits. Although macroeconomic theory suggests that trade deficits may be associated with a wide variety of factors, two events in the late 1970s and early 1980s have received particular attention: the rise in U. S. aggregate demand relative to foreign aggregate demand and the increase in U. S. interest rates relative to foreign interest rates. Both may have been spurred by the U. S. government’s budget deficit. The excess of spending over income provided a powerful expansionary fiscal policy while higher interest rates had to be used to attract foreign and domestic investors to finance the growth in debt. A relative increase in aggregate demand, whatever its source, is expected to lead to a trade deficit because a country’s demand for imports is positively associated with the level of its aggregate demand. In this instance, the theory predicts that U. S. demand for imports will rise relative to foreign demand for U. S. exports as U. S. aggregate demand grows relative to foreign aggregate demand. A relative increase in U. S. interest rates can also lead to trade deficits by increasing foreign demand for U. S. financial assets. The link between financial flows that respond to interest rate changes and trade deficits is evident in standard balance of payments accounting relationships. The accounting relationships used in defining trade deficits require that a nation’s current account (comprised of the merchandise trade balance, the balance of trade on services, and net unilateral transfers) equals in size, but with opposite sign, the capital account. In other words, if there are capital inflows, then there must be a trade deficit. Given this accounting relationship, the inflow of foreign capital that is attracted by relatively high U. S. interest rates must lead to a trade deficit to satisfy the fundamental accounting identities that underlie balance of payments accounting (McCulloch, 1978). While explanations of recent trade deficits that are based on fundamental macroeconomic relationships are attractive to economists, many commentators have advanced alternative explanations that are rooted in microeconomic relationships. These commentators believe that the microeconomic characteristics have changed in ways that explain the relatively sudden substantial increases in imports and net imports. In addition, public opinion, for one reason or another, has not fully accepted the power of the macroeconomic explanations for the trade deficits. We shall therefore investigate these explanations that have been offered by various sources. The logical connections between these microeconomic changes and trade deficits have not been clearly drawn. In particular, supporters of these microeconomic-based hypotheses have ignored the fact that (absent macroeconomic adjustments) changes in the exchange rate could compensate for shifts in microeconomic relationships, leaving trade flows in balance (Tarr, 1985). While the link between alleged microeconomic changes and trade deficits is unclear, empirical analysis of the microeconomic explanations can still be very useful. Specifically, if we find that the alleged microeconomic changes in the structure of trade have not occurred, then we will be in a position to reject the microeconomic explanations directly. For advocates of the microeconomic explanations, this approach may be more convincing than one that evaluates the microeconomic explanations indirectly through the use of general equilibrium or macroeconomic models. The microeconomic explanations have focused on identifying three types of microeconomic changes. First, there may be technological changes that alter trade flows. For example, changes in an industry’s technology may alter factor intensities so that particular inputs are less important to successful international competition. Second, policy changes may alter trade flows through their effect on the openness of U. S. or other economies or through their effect on the relative cost structure of U. S. manufacturers. Changes in tariff, quotas, or government subsidies clearly can have this effect, but other government policies may also be important. Third, the availability of needed inputs may change so that the competitive position of U. S. firms is altered. For example, when abundant mineral resources continue to be key for production, the U. S. position will change as the United States exhausts its relative supply of these needed resources. According to some commentators, any or all of these types of microeconomic changes might lead to growth in the manufacturing trade deficit. As a result, they have received substantial public attention. If changes in microeconomic factors are the source of recent trade deficits, we should observe a recent and major shift in the pattern of U. S. trade, since some industries will be more sensitive to changes in particular microeconomic factors than other industries or experience bigger changes in these factors. For instance, if relative U. S. wage rates have become more important in international competition, we should observe a particularly large rise in net imports in industries that employ relatively large amounts of high-cost labor or have experienced particularly large increases in labor costs. In contrast, if macroeconomic variables underlie the recent deficits, this type of structural shift in trade flows is less likely to be present (Drucker, 1985). As a result, we can reject many of the microeconomic explanations of recent trade deficits that have been advanced if we observe that economic relationships that traditionally have advantaged some industries over others in international trade have been stable and that key industry characteristics, such as labor intensity, have also been stable. You read "American International Competitiveness" in category "Papers" In the case of U. S. wage rates, if the relationship between wage rates and imports has not changed over time, and U. S. wage rates relative to those in other countries have not changed significantly, then wage rates are unlikely to have contributed to the increased trade deficit. Of course, if we do find that the alleged microeconomic changes have occurred, the growth in the trade deficit can not be attributed to them unless logical causal relationships can be identified that are consistent with international trade accounting identities. Factors associated with U. S. competitiveness in trade appear to have been relatively stable throughout the 1970s and early 1980s. Manufacturing operations located in the States retain their traditional competitive advantage in production that requires sophisticated know-how and continue to experience a competitive disadvantage in production that uses unskilled labour intensively. Moreover, it appears that, to the extent change has occurred, these relationships have strengthened over time (Marston 1986). Yet, as others have pointed out, the competitive performance of many U. S. industries appears to have declined (Landau and Rosenberg, 1986). Can these two observations be consistent? The competitive performance of U. S. industries can decline because of changes that do not affect the relationships between trade flows and the industry characteristics. First, the characteristics of particular industries, such as their factor intensities, may have changed so that net imports increased. The higher unionization is associated with more imports, thus if unionization increased and this relationship remained stable, then unionization could be one cause of increased imports. Shifts in the relative competitiveness of an individual industry may reflect adjustments in the characteristics of the industry, within the context of stable comparative advantage relationships. For example, if strong RD efforts are associated with strong exports, but industries reduce their RD expenditures, export performance would be expected to decline even though the relationship between exports and RD was stable. Put slightly differently, when relative factor abundancies are stable, changes in industrial input requirements will be reflected in shifts in the trade balance of particular U. S. industries. The rankings of industries with respect to their trade flows have been quite stable. While there have been some shifts in position during the last decade, statistical tests indicate that the shifting has not been substantial. The rank order of manufacturing industries by the level of net imports in 1975 is highly correlated with the rank order that existed in 1984. Industry characteristics available in time series have also been quite stable. The values for industry characteristics in 1975 are highly correlated with their values in 1981. Moreover, the changes in mean values for these variables are relatively small, especially for the variables that are most directly related to the seven proposed explanations of the trade deficits that we analyze. The variables available in time series include the primary variables used in traditional trade models. Simple macroeconomic relationships suggest that the rise in the trade deficit is likely to be associated with changes in macroeconomic variables. If this is true, then one would expect that many industries experienced a rise in their trade deficits (Benvignati, 1985). Consistent with this prediction, nearly all U. S. industries experienced declining international competitiveness to some degree between 1981 and 1984. In addition to this general confirmation of the macroeconomic explanations for trade deficits, there is direct support for the view that recent inflows of foreign capital, attracted by relatively high U. S. interest rates, and increases in U. S. aggregate demand relative to foreign aggregate demand are responsible for recent trade deficits. Specifically, exchange rates rose during the period studied and this led to an increase in net imports, as the macroeconomic theory of international financial flows predicts. Also there appears to be a positive association between recent increases in relative U. S. aggregate demand and net imports, as the aggregate demand theory suggests. According to the macroeconomic theory of international financial flows, higher U. S. interest rates will attract foreign capital. Since U. S. financial assets are denominated in dollars, this will lead to an increase in the demand for dollars. Because increases in the value of the dollar make U. S. goods more expensive relative to foreign goods, there will be a reduction in the international competitiveness of U. S. manufacturers. This decrease in competitiveness is expected to be reflected in higher net imports, causing the trade deficit to equal the surplus on the capital account. There is empirical support for this argument. U. S. industries appear to have been under severe competitive pressure because of the relatively high value of the dollar. For example, in the automobile industry, it has been argued that about $700 of the roughly $2,000 cost disadvantage of U. S. automobile manufacturers in 1983 was due to the unusually high exchange rate (Detroit Battle, 1983). Similarly, in steel, machine tools, textiles, and many other industries, analysts have pointed to exchange rates as an important source of the U. S. competitive disadvantage. As a result, it is not too surprising that the increase in the value of the dollar between 1980 and 1985 was associated with a decline in the U. S. trade balance. While the adverse effect of the increased value of the dollar on the competitive position of U. S. industries seems to have been quite widespread, the effect has been larger in some industries than others. In particular, it appears likely that the effect will be largest for products where the demand for U. S. exports and imports was quite elastic, since these products are most sensitive to changes in relative prices. For example, estimates of price elasticities by Baldwin (1976) indicate that these elasticities are particularly large (between 3. 20 and 4. 4) in the case of metal working machinery and office/computing machines. According to macroeconomic theory, imports are likely to vary positively with the level of aggregate demand, other things being equal. Specifically, as U. S. incomes rise, the U. S. demand for imports is likely to rise. Moreover, if U. S. incomes rise relative to foreign incomes, the U. S. demand for imports should rise relative to the foreign demand for U. S. exports. As a result, macroeconomic theory predicts that, during these periods, U. S. demand for imports will rise relative to foreign demand for U. S. exports and growing trade deficits are more likely. At the end of 1982, the U. S. balance of payments deficit appears to have been reduced by aggregate demand effects, since the U. S. demand was falling relative to foreign demand. However, in 1983 and 1984 the U. S. economy grew relative to the economies of its trading partners (Economic Report of the President 1986). The relatively strong U. S. recovery and the general worldwide recession were associated with a sharp rise in the U. S. trade deficit (Economic Report of the President 1985). There is no conflict between the observation that U. S. trade deficits have risen and the finding that U. S. comparative advantage relationships have been relatively stable over the last decade. Evidently, there have been shifts in macroeconomic variables that have increased the level of imports in most industries, without shifting trade patterns across industries significantly. While other types of changes, such as shifts in omitted microeconomic variables or changes in the magnitudes of included variables, would also make the two observations consistent, these alternative explanations are not nearly as important. Moreover, simple macroeconomic theories and available empirical evidence suggest strongly that macroeconomic forces underlie the growth of recent trade deficits. Changes in most microeconomic variables have either been gradual or narrowly focused. As a result, they are unlikely to generate the large trade deficits that are observed. Only the changes in international capital flows (with associated changes in exchange rates) and, for part of the period, changes in the relative levels of aggregate demand, have been large enough and sharp enough to explain the sudden rise in net imports. The growth of direct foreign investment by U. S. firms during the last decade reflects, in part, the exploitation of their advanced technological and organizational know-how. This stability in the fundamental comparative advantage relationships is inconsistent with widely held views linking microeconomic changes to the growth in the trade deficit during the 1980s. Macroeconomic models provide explanations that are much more consistent with empirical observations. We conclude, as have macroeconomists, that changes in macroeconomic factors, rather than any of the many microeconomic explanations that have been advanced, underlie recent U. S. trade deficits. The comparative advantage structure that determines a country’s trade patterns changes only slowly. For the United States, comparative advantage forces have meant, and still mean, that the country is a net importer of commodities that are efficiently produced with relatively large amounts of unskilled labour and a net exporter of commodities that require the relatively intensive use of skilled labour. These basic relationships have not changed significantly during the 1970s or early 1980s. Similarly, the United States continues to be disadvantaged in industries that are energy-intensive, use depleting natural resources, or are heavily unionized. Higher minimum efficient scale requirements and higher RD intensity continue to be associated with both higher imports and higher exports. Only weak relationships exist between capital intensity or industry concentration and the strength of the U. S. trade position. The relationships between industry characteristics and trade flows are evident despite the presence of tariff and nontariff barriers and other government trade policies. Moreover, the effects of trade policies appear to be weak relative to the economic forces that result from differences in comparative advantage. Nonetheless, trade policies do have identifiable effects. As one would expect, U. S. tariff and nontariff barriers are associated with lower net import levels. However, the statistical findings for foreign trade barriers are less clear. We attribute this to the fact that U. S. exporters face different trade barriers in different countries. It may be the case that strong U. S. exports continue in many countries although these exports face substantial barriers in other countries. In addition, foreign trade barriers and industrial targeting efforts may arise as a reaction to U. S. export successes, yet not be strong enough to make a substantial reduction in U. S. exports in foreign markets generally. Analyses of U. S. imports and exports test the competitiveness of the States as a geographical unit. However, these analyses do not capture fully the competitiveness of U. S. -controlled firms, since many U. S. firms are multinationals. To measure the competitiveness of U. S. -controlled firms, output manufactured abroad using U. S. know-how must be considered (Marston, 1986). Similarly, U. S. output must be adjusted for output produced by foreign-controlled multinationals in the United States. To a large extent, the additional perspective offered by the analysis of the adjusted trade flow data simply confirms the findings based on the unadjusted data. The United States remains relatively strong in the same industries where it was strong in the previous decade. However, when the trade flow data are adjusted to reflect the presence of multinational corporations, some structural changes in trade patterns become evident. Basically, these changes evidence a strengthening of the relationships that have traditionally shaped U. S. trade flows. Apparently U. S. firms have increasingly exploited their more mobile competitive strengths by investing abroad. There is some evidence that this effort has been undertaken to overcome historical comparative disadvantages associated with producing in the States. Most notably, there is some evidence that this foreign investment is increasingly prominent in industries that are heavily unionized. Together, the analyses of adjusted and unadjusted trade flow data indicate that U. S. firms are not losing their relative competitive strengths. The adjusted data suggest that some changes are occurring in international direct investment, but these changes have not been echoed in changes in the composition of U. S. net imports. The gradual nature of any changes that are occurring highlights the basic stability of the structure of U. S. trade flows. The structural stability that we observe is consistent with the view that shifts in microeconomic relationships are not an important source of recent trade deficits. Absent evidence of changes, there is no reason to believe that these potential microeconomic issues contend with macroeconomic factors as the real explanations for the large observed increases in the U. S. trade deficit. Turning to the first two microeconomic explanations (high labor cost explanation and union work rule explanation), traditional relationships between labor market variables and trade patterns still hold. The United States continues to be at a comparative disadvantage in labor-intensive industries. To the extent there has been change, it has been gradual and statistically insignificant. Moreover, the United States appears to be doing well, and has slightly improved its performance, in high-wage industries. Evidently, the advantage continues in industries where human capital is important. While union activities have affected the structure of U. S. manufacturing industries, this impact has been different from that suggested in the second explanation. No change in the relationship between unionization and U. S. trade flows has taken place. However, various studies do suggest that multinational corporations in unionized industries have shifted larger and larger shares of their output overseas. Apparently, this direct investment has added to U. S. -controlled output, rather than entirely substituting for exports from unionized industries located in the States. The third and fourth explanations (foreign government trade practices explanation and OPEC cartel explanation) involve actions taken by foreign governments. Foreign governments do not appear to have uniformly targeted â€Å"U. S. industries†Ã¢â‚¬â€œthat is, industries where the United States has had a competitive advantage. While foreign government interventions are evident, these efforts vary from country to country and do not appear to have a significant effect on overall U. S. trade patterns. This does not mean that particular foreign tariffs, nontariff barriers, or targeting subsidies could not disrupt natural trade flows. However, it does mean that currently these effects are limited among our major trading partners (Maskus 1981). Actions by foreign governments that may have supported OPEC’s efforts to raise energy prices did not significantly alter the structure of U. S. manufacturing trade, as the fourth proposition contends. The increases in world energy prices during the 1970s were dramatic and clearly had a significant effect on the overall balance of payments. However, only when trade flows are adjusted to recognize the presence of multinationals is there a significant change in the comparative advantage structure across manufacturing industries. Turning to the fifth microeconomic explanation (declining RD explanation), U. S. firms have not lost their comparative advantage in RD-intensive products. While U. S. imports of high-technology products have increased over time, so have exports. Moreover, the overall structural relationships that determine U. S. comparative advantages with respect to RD do not appear to have changed significantly. To the extent change is evident; it appears that the growth of U. S. multinational firms has allowed them to exploit their comparative advantages in high technology through their foreign affiliates. The remaining explanations (inadequate investment explanation and antitrust explanation) involve policies of the U. S. government. According to these two explanations, high taxes on capital formation and overly aggressive antitrust enforcement efforts have undermined the competitiveness of U. S. firms. The notion that relatively high taxes on capital, and resulting lower U. S. investment rates, have led to a growing U. S. disadvantage in capital-intensive industries is not confirmed by the statistical tests. While some earlier studies using 1958 to 1976 data found that the United States had a growing comparative disadvantage in capital-intensive industries, this trend did not continue in the late 1970s and early 1980s (Maskus 1981). The United States was a strong exporter in industries where economies of scale (MES) are important. Moreover, we did not find substantial advantages of concentration beyond the levels associated with these plant- level scale economies. There also was no sign of significant changes in the comparative advantage relationships with respect to scalerelated or concentration-related variables. Conclusion Given the stability of U. S. comparative advantage relationships over time, why has the U. S. trade deficit increased by so much? For some industries, the rise in net imports may simply reflect the fact that the characteristics of the industry have changed, so U. S. firms no longer have a comparative advantage. In particular, when the know-how needed to produce a commodity becomes standardized and cheap labour becomes a relatively more important input, we should expect that U. S. manufacturers will lose share to foreign manufacturers. As is suggested by simple macroeconomic models, much of the rise in net imports appears to be attributable to macroeconomic forces that have more than offset the advantages that U. S. firms have traditionally had in some industries. In fact, most industries have experienced increased levels of imports, suggesting that economy-wide changes underlie the problem. Examination of macroeconomic variables that could produce this type of shift in trade flows confirms that the rise in interest rates with the associated increase in the value of the dollar and, during some recent periods, the relatively rapid growth of U. S. aggregate demand appear to have stimulated net imports generally. Generally, there has been relatively little shifting in either comparative advantage relationships or in industry characteristics that affect imports and exports. Indeed, the growth in direct foreign investment, which appears to support the most dramatic changes that have occurred, has been associated with the exploitation of traditional U. S. advantages. Moreover, the shift in the overall position of the United States relative to its trading partners has been fairly general, which is consistent with the argument that individual microeconomic explanations are unlikely to explain much of the recent rise in U. S. trade deficits. Given this finding, it is probable that the U. S. recent loss in competitive position is largely attributable to macroeconomic forces. In particular, it appears likely that changes in relative interest rates and levels of aggregate demand best explain most of the recent increases in the U. S. trade deficit. Both of these may be related to large increases in the government’s budget deficit. The rise in trade deficits during the 1970s and 1980s led to substantial concern about the competitiveness of U. S. firms. Many of the microeconomic explanations that have been advanced to explain the recent deficits do not appear to be supported by available empirical evidence. Because these microeconomic explanations do not explain the recent trade deficits, policy prescriptions based on shifting microeconomic variables are a poor bet to change trade flows fundamentally. In particular, wage restrictions, trade restrictions, subsidization programs, and policies that promote market concentration are unlikely to alter the trade deficit substantially. Indeed, efforts to implement these policies are likely to hurt U. S. competitiveness, as interest groups attach riders to legislation that promotes their special interests at the expense of the broader economy. Focusing the public debate on microeconomic factors rather than macroeconomic factors seems to be, at best, ill-advised. It tends to distract the public from the real, difficult issues of government deficits, international investment, and economic growth. More likely, it provides a convenient cloak in which to wrap the costly protections so fervently sought by special interest groups that ultimately increase costs, retard productivity growth, and harm consumers. Since the strategic use of trade policies can disadvantage one country at the expense of another, it is better to view findings as indicating that care must be taken in responding to recent trade deficits. Specifically, policy makers must be careful that they are not so caught up in the dramatic deficits that they accede to special interest groups that have inappropriately linked their troubles to those of the economy as a whole (Krugman, 1986). History provides very little reason to believe that such objectivity is possible in trade policy. Failure to exercise caution has its risks. Not only can the improper protectionist policies cause sizeable immediate losses, but they may also lead to longer term losses as well. For example, it may be short-sighted to impose import restraints on products that are key inputs into subsequent production activities, since this can have adverse effects on domestic producers that use these inputs. Indeed, protectionist policies of this type may have long-run adverse effects on the protected industry, since potential customers may choose to locate abroad and, as a result, not be well-positioned to purchase the input from U. S. suppliers even after protection is no longer necessary. In addition, poorly designed protectionist efforts can trigger trade wars, as foreign governments retaliate to unjustifiable U. S. trade restraints. Indeed, the threat of spiraling beggar-thy-neighbor policies continues to be a key reason for supporting free trade, even in a world that offers strategic opportunities. Reference: â€Å"Detroit Battle: The Cost Gap,† New York Times, May 28, 1983, pp. 35, 37. Baldwin R. , U. S. Tariff Policy: Formation and Effects,† study prepared for the Bureau of International Labor Affairs, U. S. Department of Labor, June 1976. Benvignati A. , â€Å"The Commodity Composition of U. S. Intra-firm Exports,† FTC, unpublished, 1985. Drucker P. , â€Å"Where Union Flexibility’s Now a Must,† Wall Street Journal, September 23, 1985, p. 30. Economic Report of the President, U. S. Council of Economic Advisers. Washington, D. C. : U. S. Government Printing Office, annual editions from 1972 to 1987. Landau R. , and N. Rosenberg (eds. ), The Positive Sum Strategy, Washington, D. C. : National Academy Press, 1986. Landau R. , and N. Rosenberg (eds. ), The Positive Sum Strategy, Washington, D. C. : National Academy Press, 1986. Marston R. , â€Å"Assessing Japanese Competitiveness,† NBER Reporter, Winter 1986/ 1987, pp. 12-16. Maskus K. , The Changing Structure of Comparative Advantage in American Manufacturing, Ann Arbor, Mich. : UMI Research Press, 1981. McCulloch R. , â€Å"Research and Development as a Determinant of U. S. International Competitiveness,† Harvard Economic Research Discussion Paper 609, March 1978. Tarr D. , â€Å"Trade Deficits, Trade Policy and the Value of the Dollar,† paper for conference, Trade Policy: Free or Fair? , November 19, 1985. How to cite American International Competitiveness, Papers