Article Critique Promoting Mother Infant Book Sharing...

Article Critique 2 Cooper, P., Vally, Z., Cooper, H., Radford, T., Sharples, A., Tomlinson, M., Murray, L. (2014). Promoting Mother-Infant Book Sharing and Infant Attention and Language Development in an Impoverished South African Population: A Pilot Study. Early Childhood Education Journal, 42(2), 143-152. doi:10.1007/s10643-013-0591-8 PURPOSE: This pilot study was completed to see if a successful study in the developed world would extend to an impoverished community in South Africa. The present successful study that was completed in the developed world was about parents sharing of picture books with infants and young children is beneficial for child language and cognitive development and literacy skills. The current pilot study wanted to see whether the mothers in the South Africa communities would accept the parents sharing the picture books with infants and whether this training appeared to have a positive impact on maternal behavior and positive infant outcomes. INTRODUCTION: Around 200 million children in Africa and Asia are not able to achieve their potential due to poverty. The potential is affected in their language, cognitive, and literacy skills. In economically developed countries research has shown that book sharing between infant and mother promotes infant language development and development after infancy. South Africa is a great environment to complete this pilot study because there is a great amount of poverty. METHOD: Trainers: A group of fourShow MoreRelatedParental Grief Essay14598 Words   |  59 Pagesneeding it as a reminder of the child who died. Bereaved parents continue to be parents of the child who died. They will always feel the empty place in their hearts caused by the childs death; they were, and always will be, the loving father and mother of that child. Yet, these parents have to accept that they will never be able to live their lives with or share their love openly with the child. So they must find ways to hold on to the memories. Many bereaved parents come to learn that memoriesRead MoreSupporting the Development of English Literacy in English Language Learners22851 Words   |  92 PagesSUPPORTING THE DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH LITERACY IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS Key Issues and Promising Practices Diane August August Associates Report No. 61 February 2003 This report was published by the Center for Research on the Education of Students Placed At Risk (CRESPAR), a national research and development center supported by a grant (No. R-117-D40005) from the Office of Educational Research and Improvement (OERI), U.S. Department of Education. The content or opinions expressedRead MoreGp Essay Mainpoints24643 Words   |  99 Pagesa. True purpose of sports nowadays b. Sports and Media 8. Foreign Aid a. How effective is Foreign Aid? 9. Migration a. Is migration/having foreigners good? 10. Subjects a. Literature b. History c. Mathematics d. Universal language 11. Businesses a. 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Copyright  © 2011, 2007, 2005, 2002, 1998 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Prentice Hall, OneRead More_x000C_Introduction to Statistics and Data Analysis355457 Words   |  1422 PagesLuis Obispo Australia †¢ Brazil †¢ Canada †¢ Mexico †¢ Singapore †¢ Spain †¢ United Kingdom †¢ United States Introduction to Statistics and Data Analysis, Third Edition Roxy Peck, Chris Olsen, Jay Devore Acquisitions Editor: Carolyn Crockett Development Editor: Danielle Derbenti Assistant Editor: Beth Gershman Editorial Assistant: Ashley Summers Technology Project Manager: Colin Blake Marketing Manager: Joe Rogove Marketing Assistant: Jennifer Liang Marketing Communications Manager: Jessica PerryRead MoreProject Mgmt296381 Words   |  1186 PagesActivity duration estimates (.3) 6.4.2 Estimating tools (.1.3.4) 6.3.1 Identifying resources 7.1 Activity cost estimates (.2.3.4.5) 5.1.2.4 Delphi method Chapter 6 10.5.3 Cost/schedule system (.1) 6.6 .2.1 Time performance 7.2.3.1 Cost baseline development 7.3.2.1 Earned value system (F.4) 7.3.2.4 E.V., performance status report 7.3.2.2 E.V., forecasts 7.3.2.3 EV., to complete index (EAC) 7.3.2.5 Schedule and cost variance Developing a Project Plan 4.2.2 Planning tools 6.2 Sequence activities

A Brief Research of Christian Science Essay - 775 Words

Christian Science What is Christian Science? Who is Mary Baker Eddy? Where does Christian Science come from? Is Christian Science like Scientology? What are Christian Science beliefs? Why are we here and where do we go when we die? These question may be raised when you hear Christian Science. Christian Science is unique in its own way, it may not seem all that amazing like other religions but Christian Science is truly amazing over all. Some people refer to Christian Science as non-Christian or an a cult, but that’s not true. Christian Science is a religion that formed more slowly than other religions but is still a good religion. Christian Science is a religion that lets you understand God, Jesus Christ, good from evil,†¦show more content†¦Unlike Christian Science, â€Å"in Scientology there is no belief in the Holy Bible, God, or Jesus Christ.† (â€Å"The Differences Between Scientology and Christian Science†). Christian Science and Scientology are not the same in anyway yet people still confuse the two. Christian Science don’t have to many beliefs but they do have words that were left behind for other Christian Scientists. â€Å"Christian Science religion teaches the existence of an all-powerful God and the authority and inspiration of the Bible. Christian Scientists believe in the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus to be essential to human redemption. Mary Baker Eddy taught the belief in one God and unlike traditional orthodox Christianity, described God with the synonyms: Principle, Soul, Mind, Spirit, Life, Truth, and Love.† (â€Å"What is Christian Science?†). â€Å"There is no life, truth, intelligence, nor substance in matter. All is infinite Mind and its infinite manifestation, for God is All-in-all. Spirit is immortal Truth; matter is mortal error. Spirit is the real and eternal; matter is the unreal and temporal. Spirit is God, and man is His image and likeness. Therefore man is not material; he is spiritual.† (SH 468 quoted in â€Å"What is Christian Science?†) According the beliefs of Christian Science, humans are just subjects to the law of matter as long we believe that weShow MoreRelatedThe Controversy Of Eugenics And Genetic Engineering1632 Words   |  7 PagesHowever, in the last 150 years, humanity has made great strides in the science of genetics. In that time, there have been some subjects that have been highly controversial: eugenics and genetic engineering. The history of these topics is colored with ethical and moral quandaries that have been topics for fierce debates since the early 1900s, and they continue to this day. Eugenics was defined by Francis Galton as â€Å"the science which deals with all influences that improve the inborn qualities of aRead MoreArticle Review Old Earth Theory920 Words   |  4 PagesThis document is a journal article review providing a brief synopsis, observed strengths, and observed weaknesses of Doctor Mortenson’s â€Å"The Origin of Old-Earth Geology and its Ramifications for Life in the 21st Century†. This article is not an attack on Christianity or the Christian ideology. This paper is simply an honest attempt to review Mortenson’s information provided, his hypothesis, and venue chosen for Christian Apologetics. Brief Overview and Main Points The Origin of Old-Earth GeologyRead MoreHow Christianity and Science Can Go Together Essay724 Words   |  3 Pagesteens are turning away from Christian churches. The research showed that one-fourth of these skeptical young adults felt that â€Å"Christianity is anti-science† . 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Food Safety Essays - 845 Words

Food Safety Training: Importance and Methodologies The CDC estimates that there are approximately 76 million cases of foodborne illness each year. As a food service professional, it is your job to do everything possible to ensure that the food being served is safe. The factors that ensure food safety are personal hygiene, cleaning and sanitizing, food storage, food preparation methods, holding, reheating, and serving. What is appropriate, necessary, and safe with regard to these factors might mean different things to different people making training imperative, and a thorough training program should include each of these aspects. Equally as important as the content of the training, are the training tools and methods used to†¦show more content†¦Classroom training offers an opportunity for activity-based learning. Activity based learning includes information search, guided discussion, role, play, demonstrations, jigsaw design, training videos DVDs, and games. Each of these activities is discussed below. Information s earch involves putting trainees into small groups and giving them a specific question that they will have to research and discuss. Guided discussion involves asking progressive questions to pull on the trainee’s existing knowledge and any gaps in knowledge are filled in by the trainer. In role-play, a script is created and volunteers are asked to act it out; the skit should depict the right way and wrong way to handle a task; the group of trainees is then asked to discuss what transpired during the role-play. The most effective demonstration model is the Tell/Show/Practice model. Using this model, the trainee is shown how to perform a task, told how to perform the task, and then the trainee is asked to perform the task. Jigsaw design is similar to information search in that it requires trainees to group up into small groups to research a topic and then teach about what they learned. The difference is that one person is taken from each group to form a new group and each pers on within the new group teaches that group about his/her topic. If training videosShow MoreRelatedCommunication and Food Safety2764 Words   |  12 Pagesrestaurant is aware of the food safety issue hence they are supportive toward Barry in his food safety efforts but because of high turnover of employees, eventually food training safety is omitted. It seems like the food safety issue is getting serious when one day Barry stepped into the kitchen and noticed several trays of uncooked meat sitting out in the kitchen area. After all these incidents, he has taken many effort to get employees to be safe in how the handle food. 1. What are the communicationRead MoreFood Safety Essay1069 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿1-What type of hazard could occur by wearing jewelry while preparing food? A-Physical and biological 2- The greatest concern about having the pests in restaurants is that they will ----------- A-? 3-bactarial growth can be minimized by ------ A- Time temperature oxygen moisture 4-The term sanitizing is defind as: A- Reducing harmful microorganism to safe level 5-The proper sequence for cleaning food contact in a three compartment sink is: A- Wash,rinse and sanitize 6- Which will be the best methodRead MoreConsumer Awareness On Food Safety2617 Words   |  11 PagesSummary This study identifies that costs of food safety are high in the developed world, and consumer awareness on food safety practices is lacking especially in younger consumers. The explosion of ever increasing fast food chains and poor food eating practices by Consumers, New Zealanders’ increasingly are getting affected by Obesity and diseases such as Diabetes. 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Food can transmit disease from individual to individual, and also servesRead MoreCanada s Food Safety System Essay1958 Words   |  8 Pages Hub Cafeteria Inspection Food hygiene: ENH 433 Professor Richard Meldrum Faisal Hussain ID: 500635004 Introduction Canada’s food safety system is globally recognized as one of the safest system, because we believe food safety is the responsibility of everyone in the food environment. The Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) is responsible for food safety at federal level. CFIA impose food safety and nutritional standards set by Health Canada. Ministry of Health and Long TermRead MoreFood Safety, Food, And Food Choice At Mcdonalds1167 Words   |  5 PagesThis represents a low-calorie food choice at McDonalds, an example of how Public Health practices continue to influence how we eat. Throughout history, advances in food science and technology have played a pivotal role in making food safer and healthier for an ever evolving society. 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Each year, foodborne illnesses strike 48 million Americans, hospitalizing approximately 128,000 people and killing 3,000 (â€Å"Estimating Foodborne Illness†). Over time, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has implemented various legislations in order to prevent illnesses and reduce risks. In 2011, the Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA) was signed by the President which wa s considered to be a â€Å"historical legislation† (Hamburg). Along the course

Capital Punishment And The Death Penalty - 1995 Words

Capital punishment is an occurrence that often provokes public outcry and public opinions in regards to moral and ethical issues. Each country has their own set of regulations in the way they carry out the death penalty to offenders who receive the death sentence for offences eligible for capital punishment (Eversley Copeland, 2011). Throughout the history of execution, however, there have been changes in the way death sentences are distributed and carried out. Human rights activists have come forward to argue that despite the crimes committed, all people need to enjoy their fundamental right of life and no one has the power to take it away from them (Banner Banner, 2009). In the past, there have been (alleged) offenders, convicted and executed due to death sentencing; many of those offenders maintained their innocence up until the time of their execution. Public opinion seems to be the number one factor influencing death penalty executions against offenders. Many cases, in the far and recent past, have attracted global attention to the justification of why the death penalty is an ineffective way of dealing with offenders (Mooney Lee, (2000). The period between the passing of judgment, for an offender to receive capital punishment, and the actual execution of an offender is usually a prolonged amount of time, which goes against the first principle of the deterrence theory, swiftness of punishments. Introduction Cases of death penalty for people convicted of murderShow MoreRelatedCapital Punishment : The Death Penalty1482 Words   |  6 PagesMrs. McElmoyl 12/12/14 Capital Punishment As stated by former governor of New York, Mario M. Cuomo, Always I have concluded the death penalty is wrong because it lowers us all; it is a surrender to the worst that is in us; it uses a power- the official power to kill by execution- that has never brought back a life, need inspired anything but hate. (Cuomo 1) This is one of the main arguments against capital punishment (also known as the death sentence.) Capital punishment is the ability for a governmentRead MoreThe Death Penalty Of Capital Punishment1480 Words   |  6 Pagesjustice system, such as the death penalty. Capital punishment has been used many times in history all around the world, and it was quite popular. Many people argue that capital punishment is useful in deterring crime and that it is only fair that criminals receive death as punishment for a heinous crime. On the contrary, others see the death penalty as a violation of the 8th amendment. It restricts excessive fines, and it also does not allow cruel and u nusual punishment to be inflicted upon criminalsRead MoreThe Death Penalty And Capital Punishment931 Words   |  4 Pageswritten down (Robert). The death penalty was applied for a particularly wide range of crimes. The Romans also used death penalty for a wide range of offenses. Historically, the death sentence was often handled with torture, and executions, except that it was done in public. In this century, the death penalty, execution or capital punishment, whatever you’d like to refer it as, is the result for committing capital crimes or capital offences and it is not in public. The death penalty has been practiced byRead MoreCapital Punishment And The Death Penalty991 Words   |  4 PagesCapital Punishment Imagine your having a normal morning, eating breakfast doing your normal routine. Suddenly your phone rings and when you answer you hear the worst news possible. One of your family members has just been murdered in cold blood. You cry, mourn, then become angry. You attend the court hearing and you sit less than 20 feet away from the murderer. Do you truly believe this person deserves to live? Or should they face a punishment that is equal to their crime? Some may say CapitalRead MoreThe Death Penalty And Capital Punishment1569 Words   |  7 Pagesthe death penalty also referred to as capital punishment. The death penalty is both useless and harmful to not only criminals but also their potential victims. This paper uses these horrific facts to try and convince the reader that the death penalty should be done away with before it is too late, although that time may have already come. With supporting evidence to support my cause, I hope that the following information sways at least one reader to see the harm of keeping the death penalty an activeRead MoreCapital Punishment : The Death Penalty1410 Words   |  6 PagesCapital Punishment in America In 1976 the Supreme Court of the United States of America ruled the Death Penalty constitutionally permissible. The debate over capital punishment has always been a topic of great controversy. Before the Supreme Court ruling in 1976 America had been practicing capital punishment for centuries. At the current time some states enforce the death penalty, while some do not. There are differences of opinion’s relating to whether or not the death penalty is the proper wayRead MoreCapital Punishment And The Death Penalty1235 Words   |  5 PagesWhat is capital punishment? Why do people support it, but yet people cherish lives? Is it a moral thing to do? Should one be for or against the Death Penalty? Let’s take a look deep into the world of justices and why capital punishment still exists in today’s society. Capital punishment or the death penalty is a federal punishment given to criminals who are convicted of murders. It is the highest law punishment available that c an prevent future murders by developing fear within them. Capital punishmentRead MoreCapital Punishment And The Death Penalty1017 Words   |  5 PagesName: Lucas Falley Topic: Capital Punishment Background: Capital punishment, or the death penalty, has existed for thousands of years. For as long as there has been organized society, the death penalty has existed in numerous cultures and civilizations. Throughout the years the methods have changed, but the use of capital punishment is becoming a pressing matter. Amnesty International reports that there are 140 countries worldwide that have abolished the death penalty, while over 50 countries stillRead MoreThe Death Penalty Is A Capital Punishment1271 Words   |  6 Pages What is the death penalty? The death penalty is a capital punishment that is punishable by death or execution. This is usually given to people that have committed serious offences or capital crimes. There are 31 states in the United States that are for the death penalty. Crimes that are punishable by the death penalty, vary from state to state. Examples of such crimes are; first degree murder or premeditated murder, murder with special circumstances, such as: intende d, multiple, and murder whichRead MoreCapital Punishment And The Death Penalty1539 Words   |  7 PagesCapital punishment, otherwise known as the death penalty, has been the center of debate for a long time. Capital punishment may be defined as the â€Å"[e]xecution of an offender sentenced to death after conviction by a court of law of a criminal offense† (Capital Punishment). Up until 1846, when Michigan became the first to abolish the death sentence, all states allowed legal practice of capital punishment by the government (States). Currently, there 32 states still supporting the death penalty and 18

American International Competitiveness Free Essays

string(151) " industries over others in international trade have been stable and that key industry characteristics, such as labor intensity, have also been stable\." Since the beginning of the 1970s, the United States has experienced a virtual trade revolution. Trade has increased much faster than the economy as a whole. Both imports and exports expanded during the past 15 years. We will write a custom essay sample on American International Competitiveness or any similar topic only for you Order Now In the late 1970s, imports started outstripping exports by historically large margins. A merchandise trade deficit has been present every year since 1976. Moreover, this deficit has increased dramatically in the 1980s. What economic changes underlie the shift in U. S. competitiveness evidenced by the recent trade deficits? While economists who have addressed this question have employed different approaches, most have examined changes in macroeconomic variables to see if they generated the economic pressures that led to the recent trade deficits. Economists who have employed this approach have generally concluded that macroeconomic changes probably are the cause of the recent deficits. Although macroeconomic theory suggests that trade deficits may be associated with a wide variety of factors, two events in the late 1970s and early 1980s have received particular attention: the rise in U. S. aggregate demand relative to foreign aggregate demand and the increase in U. S. interest rates relative to foreign interest rates. Both may have been spurred by the U. S. government’s budget deficit. The excess of spending over income provided a powerful expansionary fiscal policy while higher interest rates had to be used to attract foreign and domestic investors to finance the growth in debt. A relative increase in aggregate demand, whatever its source, is expected to lead to a trade deficit because a country’s demand for imports is positively associated with the level of its aggregate demand. In this instance, the theory predicts that U. S. demand for imports will rise relative to foreign demand for U. S. exports as U. S. aggregate demand grows relative to foreign aggregate demand. A relative increase in U. S. interest rates can also lead to trade deficits by increasing foreign demand for U. S. financial assets. The link between financial flows that respond to interest rate changes and trade deficits is evident in standard balance of payments accounting relationships. The accounting relationships used in defining trade deficits require that a nation’s current account (comprised of the merchandise trade balance, the balance of trade on services, and net unilateral transfers) equals in size, but with opposite sign, the capital account. In other words, if there are capital inflows, then there must be a trade deficit. Given this accounting relationship, the inflow of foreign capital that is attracted by relatively high U. S. interest rates must lead to a trade deficit to satisfy the fundamental accounting identities that underlie balance of payments accounting (McCulloch, 1978). While explanations of recent trade deficits that are based on fundamental macroeconomic relationships are attractive to economists, many commentators have advanced alternative explanations that are rooted in microeconomic relationships. These commentators believe that the microeconomic characteristics have changed in ways that explain the relatively sudden substantial increases in imports and net imports. In addition, public opinion, for one reason or another, has not fully accepted the power of the macroeconomic explanations for the trade deficits. We shall therefore investigate these explanations that have been offered by various sources. The logical connections between these microeconomic changes and trade deficits have not been clearly drawn. In particular, supporters of these microeconomic-based hypotheses have ignored the fact that (absent macroeconomic adjustments) changes in the exchange rate could compensate for shifts in microeconomic relationships, leaving trade flows in balance (Tarr, 1985). While the link between alleged microeconomic changes and trade deficits is unclear, empirical analysis of the microeconomic explanations can still be very useful. Specifically, if we find that the alleged microeconomic changes in the structure of trade have not occurred, then we will be in a position to reject the microeconomic explanations directly. For advocates of the microeconomic explanations, this approach may be more convincing than one that evaluates the microeconomic explanations indirectly through the use of general equilibrium or macroeconomic models. The microeconomic explanations have focused on identifying three types of microeconomic changes. First, there may be technological changes that alter trade flows. For example, changes in an industry’s technology may alter factor intensities so that particular inputs are less important to successful international competition. Second, policy changes may alter trade flows through their effect on the openness of U. S. or other economies or through their effect on the relative cost structure of U. S. manufacturers. Changes in tariff, quotas, or government subsidies clearly can have this effect, but other government policies may also be important. Third, the availability of needed inputs may change so that the competitive position of U. S. firms is altered. For example, when abundant mineral resources continue to be key for production, the U. S. position will change as the United States exhausts its relative supply of these needed resources. According to some commentators, any or all of these types of microeconomic changes might lead to growth in the manufacturing trade deficit. As a result, they have received substantial public attention. If changes in microeconomic factors are the source of recent trade deficits, we should observe a recent and major shift in the pattern of U. S. trade, since some industries will be more sensitive to changes in particular microeconomic factors than other industries or experience bigger changes in these factors. For instance, if relative U. S. wage rates have become more important in international competition, we should observe a particularly large rise in net imports in industries that employ relatively large amounts of high-cost labor or have experienced particularly large increases in labor costs. In contrast, if macroeconomic variables underlie the recent deficits, this type of structural shift in trade flows is less likely to be present (Drucker, 1985). As a result, we can reject many of the microeconomic explanations of recent trade deficits that have been advanced if we observe that economic relationships that traditionally have advantaged some industries over others in international trade have been stable and that key industry characteristics, such as labor intensity, have also been stable. You read "American International Competitiveness" in category "Papers" In the case of U. S. wage rates, if the relationship between wage rates and imports has not changed over time, and U. S. wage rates relative to those in other countries have not changed significantly, then wage rates are unlikely to have contributed to the increased trade deficit. Of course, if we do find that the alleged microeconomic changes have occurred, the growth in the trade deficit can not be attributed to them unless logical causal relationships can be identified that are consistent with international trade accounting identities. Factors associated with U. S. competitiveness in trade appear to have been relatively stable throughout the 1970s and early 1980s. Manufacturing operations located in the States retain their traditional competitive advantage in production that requires sophisticated know-how and continue to experience a competitive disadvantage in production that uses unskilled labour intensively. Moreover, it appears that, to the extent change has occurred, these relationships have strengthened over time (Marston 1986). Yet, as others have pointed out, the competitive performance of many U. S. industries appears to have declined (Landau and Rosenberg, 1986). Can these two observations be consistent? The competitive performance of U. S. industries can decline because of changes that do not affect the relationships between trade flows and the industry characteristics. First, the characteristics of particular industries, such as their factor intensities, may have changed so that net imports increased. The higher unionization is associated with more imports, thus if unionization increased and this relationship remained stable, then unionization could be one cause of increased imports. Shifts in the relative competitiveness of an individual industry may reflect adjustments in the characteristics of the industry, within the context of stable comparative advantage relationships. For example, if strong RD efforts are associated with strong exports, but industries reduce their RD expenditures, export performance would be expected to decline even though the relationship between exports and RD was stable. Put slightly differently, when relative factor abundancies are stable, changes in industrial input requirements will be reflected in shifts in the trade balance of particular U. S. industries. The rankings of industries with respect to their trade flows have been quite stable. While there have been some shifts in position during the last decade, statistical tests indicate that the shifting has not been substantial. The rank order of manufacturing industries by the level of net imports in 1975 is highly correlated with the rank order that existed in 1984. Industry characteristics available in time series have also been quite stable. The values for industry characteristics in 1975 are highly correlated with their values in 1981. Moreover, the changes in mean values for these variables are relatively small, especially for the variables that are most directly related to the seven proposed explanations of the trade deficits that we analyze. The variables available in time series include the primary variables used in traditional trade models. Simple macroeconomic relationships suggest that the rise in the trade deficit is likely to be associated with changes in macroeconomic variables. If this is true, then one would expect that many industries experienced a rise in their trade deficits (Benvignati, 1985). Consistent with this prediction, nearly all U. S. industries experienced declining international competitiveness to some degree between 1981 and 1984. In addition to this general confirmation of the macroeconomic explanations for trade deficits, there is direct support for the view that recent inflows of foreign capital, attracted by relatively high U. S. interest rates, and increases in U. S. aggregate demand relative to foreign aggregate demand are responsible for recent trade deficits. Specifically, exchange rates rose during the period studied and this led to an increase in net imports, as the macroeconomic theory of international financial flows predicts. Also there appears to be a positive association between recent increases in relative U. S. aggregate demand and net imports, as the aggregate demand theory suggests. According to the macroeconomic theory of international financial flows, higher U. S. interest rates will attract foreign capital. Since U. S. financial assets are denominated in dollars, this will lead to an increase in the demand for dollars. Because increases in the value of the dollar make U. S. goods more expensive relative to foreign goods, there will be a reduction in the international competitiveness of U. S. manufacturers. This decrease in competitiveness is expected to be reflected in higher net imports, causing the trade deficit to equal the surplus on the capital account. There is empirical support for this argument. U. S. industries appear to have been under severe competitive pressure because of the relatively high value of the dollar. For example, in the automobile industry, it has been argued that about $700 of the roughly $2,000 cost disadvantage of U. S. automobile manufacturers in 1983 was due to the unusually high exchange rate (Detroit Battle, 1983). Similarly, in steel, machine tools, textiles, and many other industries, analysts have pointed to exchange rates as an important source of the U. S. competitive disadvantage. As a result, it is not too surprising that the increase in the value of the dollar between 1980 and 1985 was associated with a decline in the U. S. trade balance. While the adverse effect of the increased value of the dollar on the competitive position of U. S. industries seems to have been quite widespread, the effect has been larger in some industries than others. In particular, it appears likely that the effect will be largest for products where the demand for U. S. exports and imports was quite elastic, since these products are most sensitive to changes in relative prices. For example, estimates of price elasticities by Baldwin (1976) indicate that these elasticities are particularly large (between 3. 20 and 4. 4) in the case of metal working machinery and office/computing machines. According to macroeconomic theory, imports are likely to vary positively with the level of aggregate demand, other things being equal. Specifically, as U. S. incomes rise, the U. S. demand for imports is likely to rise. Moreover, if U. S. incomes rise relative to foreign incomes, the U. S. demand for imports should rise relative to the foreign demand for U. S. exports. As a result, macroeconomic theory predicts that, during these periods, U. S. demand for imports will rise relative to foreign demand for U. S. exports and growing trade deficits are more likely. At the end of 1982, the U. S. balance of payments deficit appears to have been reduced by aggregate demand effects, since the U. S. demand was falling relative to foreign demand. However, in 1983 and 1984 the U. S. economy grew relative to the economies of its trading partners (Economic Report of the President 1986). The relatively strong U. S. recovery and the general worldwide recession were associated with a sharp rise in the U. S. trade deficit (Economic Report of the President 1985). There is no conflict between the observation that U. S. trade deficits have risen and the finding that U. S. comparative advantage relationships have been relatively stable over the last decade. Evidently, there have been shifts in macroeconomic variables that have increased the level of imports in most industries, without shifting trade patterns across industries significantly. While other types of changes, such as shifts in omitted microeconomic variables or changes in the magnitudes of included variables, would also make the two observations consistent, these alternative explanations are not nearly as important. Moreover, simple macroeconomic theories and available empirical evidence suggest strongly that macroeconomic forces underlie the growth of recent trade deficits. Changes in most microeconomic variables have either been gradual or narrowly focused. As a result, they are unlikely to generate the large trade deficits that are observed. Only the changes in international capital flows (with associated changes in exchange rates) and, for part of the period, changes in the relative levels of aggregate demand, have been large enough and sharp enough to explain the sudden rise in net imports. The growth of direct foreign investment by U. S. firms during the last decade reflects, in part, the exploitation of their advanced technological and organizational know-how. This stability in the fundamental comparative advantage relationships is inconsistent with widely held views linking microeconomic changes to the growth in the trade deficit during the 1980s. Macroeconomic models provide explanations that are much more consistent with empirical observations. We conclude, as have macroeconomists, that changes in macroeconomic factors, rather than any of the many microeconomic explanations that have been advanced, underlie recent U. S. trade deficits. The comparative advantage structure that determines a country’s trade patterns changes only slowly. For the United States, comparative advantage forces have meant, and still mean, that the country is a net importer of commodities that are efficiently produced with relatively large amounts of unskilled labour and a net exporter of commodities that require the relatively intensive use of skilled labour. These basic relationships have not changed significantly during the 1970s or early 1980s. Similarly, the United States continues to be disadvantaged in industries that are energy-intensive, use depleting natural resources, or are heavily unionized. Higher minimum efficient scale requirements and higher RD intensity continue to be associated with both higher imports and higher exports. Only weak relationships exist between capital intensity or industry concentration and the strength of the U. S. trade position. The relationships between industry characteristics and trade flows are evident despite the presence of tariff and nontariff barriers and other government trade policies. Moreover, the effects of trade policies appear to be weak relative to the economic forces that result from differences in comparative advantage. Nonetheless, trade policies do have identifiable effects. As one would expect, U. S. tariff and nontariff barriers are associated with lower net import levels. However, the statistical findings for foreign trade barriers are less clear. We attribute this to the fact that U. S. exporters face different trade barriers in different countries. It may be the case that strong U. S. exports continue in many countries although these exports face substantial barriers in other countries. In addition, foreign trade barriers and industrial targeting efforts may arise as a reaction to U. S. export successes, yet not be strong enough to make a substantial reduction in U. S. exports in foreign markets generally. Analyses of U. S. imports and exports test the competitiveness of the States as a geographical unit. However, these analyses do not capture fully the competitiveness of U. S. -controlled firms, since many U. S. firms are multinationals. To measure the competitiveness of U. S. -controlled firms, output manufactured abroad using U. S. know-how must be considered (Marston, 1986). Similarly, U. S. output must be adjusted for output produced by foreign-controlled multinationals in the United States. To a large extent, the additional perspective offered by the analysis of the adjusted trade flow data simply confirms the findings based on the unadjusted data. The United States remains relatively strong in the same industries where it was strong in the previous decade. However, when the trade flow data are adjusted to reflect the presence of multinational corporations, some structural changes in trade patterns become evident. Basically, these changes evidence a strengthening of the relationships that have traditionally shaped U. S. trade flows. Apparently U. S. firms have increasingly exploited their more mobile competitive strengths by investing abroad. There is some evidence that this effort has been undertaken to overcome historical comparative disadvantages associated with producing in the States. Most notably, there is some evidence that this foreign investment is increasingly prominent in industries that are heavily unionized. Together, the analyses of adjusted and unadjusted trade flow data indicate that U. S. firms are not losing their relative competitive strengths. The adjusted data suggest that some changes are occurring in international direct investment, but these changes have not been echoed in changes in the composition of U. S. net imports. The gradual nature of any changes that are occurring highlights the basic stability of the structure of U. S. trade flows. The structural stability that we observe is consistent with the view that shifts in microeconomic relationships are not an important source of recent trade deficits. Absent evidence of changes, there is no reason to believe that these potential microeconomic issues contend with macroeconomic factors as the real explanations for the large observed increases in the U. S. trade deficit. Turning to the first two microeconomic explanations (high labor cost explanation and union work rule explanation), traditional relationships between labor market variables and trade patterns still hold. The United States continues to be at a comparative disadvantage in labor-intensive industries. To the extent there has been change, it has been gradual and statistically insignificant. Moreover, the United States appears to be doing well, and has slightly improved its performance, in high-wage industries. Evidently, the advantage continues in industries where human capital is important. While union activities have affected the structure of U. S. manufacturing industries, this impact has been different from that suggested in the second explanation. No change in the relationship between unionization and U. S. trade flows has taken place. However, various studies do suggest that multinational corporations in unionized industries have shifted larger and larger shares of their output overseas. Apparently, this direct investment has added to U. S. -controlled output, rather than entirely substituting for exports from unionized industries located in the States. The third and fourth explanations (foreign government trade practices explanation and OPEC cartel explanation) involve actions taken by foreign governments. Foreign governments do not appear to have uniformly targeted â€Å"U. S. industries†Ã¢â‚¬â€œthat is, industries where the United States has had a competitive advantage. While foreign government interventions are evident, these efforts vary from country to country and do not appear to have a significant effect on overall U. S. trade patterns. This does not mean that particular foreign tariffs, nontariff barriers, or targeting subsidies could not disrupt natural trade flows. However, it does mean that currently these effects are limited among our major trading partners (Maskus 1981). Actions by foreign governments that may have supported OPEC’s efforts to raise energy prices did not significantly alter the structure of U. S. manufacturing trade, as the fourth proposition contends. The increases in world energy prices during the 1970s were dramatic and clearly had a significant effect on the overall balance of payments. However, only when trade flows are adjusted to recognize the presence of multinationals is there a significant change in the comparative advantage structure across manufacturing industries. Turning to the fifth microeconomic explanation (declining RD explanation), U. S. firms have not lost their comparative advantage in RD-intensive products. While U. S. imports of high-technology products have increased over time, so have exports. Moreover, the overall structural relationships that determine U. S. comparative advantages with respect to RD do not appear to have changed significantly. To the extent change is evident; it appears that the growth of U. S. multinational firms has allowed them to exploit their comparative advantages in high technology through their foreign affiliates. The remaining explanations (inadequate investment explanation and antitrust explanation) involve policies of the U. S. government. According to these two explanations, high taxes on capital formation and overly aggressive antitrust enforcement efforts have undermined the competitiveness of U. S. firms. The notion that relatively high taxes on capital, and resulting lower U. S. investment rates, have led to a growing U. S. disadvantage in capital-intensive industries is not confirmed by the statistical tests. While some earlier studies using 1958 to 1976 data found that the United States had a growing comparative disadvantage in capital-intensive industries, this trend did not continue in the late 1970s and early 1980s (Maskus 1981). The United States was a strong exporter in industries where economies of scale (MES) are important. Moreover, we did not find substantial advantages of concentration beyond the levels associated with these plant- level scale economies. There also was no sign of significant changes in the comparative advantage relationships with respect to scalerelated or concentration-related variables. Conclusion Given the stability of U. S. comparative advantage relationships over time, why has the U. S. trade deficit increased by so much? For some industries, the rise in net imports may simply reflect the fact that the characteristics of the industry have changed, so U. S. firms no longer have a comparative advantage. In particular, when the know-how needed to produce a commodity becomes standardized and cheap labour becomes a relatively more important input, we should expect that U. S. manufacturers will lose share to foreign manufacturers. As is suggested by simple macroeconomic models, much of the rise in net imports appears to be attributable to macroeconomic forces that have more than offset the advantages that U. S. firms have traditionally had in some industries. In fact, most industries have experienced increased levels of imports, suggesting that economy-wide changes underlie the problem. Examination of macroeconomic variables that could produce this type of shift in trade flows confirms that the rise in interest rates with the associated increase in the value of the dollar and, during some recent periods, the relatively rapid growth of U. S. aggregate demand appear to have stimulated net imports generally. Generally, there has been relatively little shifting in either comparative advantage relationships or in industry characteristics that affect imports and exports. Indeed, the growth in direct foreign investment, which appears to support the most dramatic changes that have occurred, has been associated with the exploitation of traditional U. S. advantages. Moreover, the shift in the overall position of the United States relative to its trading partners has been fairly general, which is consistent with the argument that individual microeconomic explanations are unlikely to explain much of the recent rise in U. S. trade deficits. Given this finding, it is probable that the U. S. recent loss in competitive position is largely attributable to macroeconomic forces. In particular, it appears likely that changes in relative interest rates and levels of aggregate demand best explain most of the recent increases in the U. S. trade deficit. Both of these may be related to large increases in the government’s budget deficit. The rise in trade deficits during the 1970s and 1980s led to substantial concern about the competitiveness of U. S. firms. Many of the microeconomic explanations that have been advanced to explain the recent deficits do not appear to be supported by available empirical evidence. Because these microeconomic explanations do not explain the recent trade deficits, policy prescriptions based on shifting microeconomic variables are a poor bet to change trade flows fundamentally. In particular, wage restrictions, trade restrictions, subsidization programs, and policies that promote market concentration are unlikely to alter the trade deficit substantially. Indeed, efforts to implement these policies are likely to hurt U. S. competitiveness, as interest groups attach riders to legislation that promotes their special interests at the expense of the broader economy. Focusing the public debate on microeconomic factors rather than macroeconomic factors seems to be, at best, ill-advised. It tends to distract the public from the real, difficult issues of government deficits, international investment, and economic growth. More likely, it provides a convenient cloak in which to wrap the costly protections so fervently sought by special interest groups that ultimately increase costs, retard productivity growth, and harm consumers. Since the strategic use of trade policies can disadvantage one country at the expense of another, it is better to view findings as indicating that care must be taken in responding to recent trade deficits. Specifically, policy makers must be careful that they are not so caught up in the dramatic deficits that they accede to special interest groups that have inappropriately linked their troubles to those of the economy as a whole (Krugman, 1986). History provides very little reason to believe that such objectivity is possible in trade policy. Failure to exercise caution has its risks. Not only can the improper protectionist policies cause sizeable immediate losses, but they may also lead to longer term losses as well. For example, it may be short-sighted to impose import restraints on products that are key inputs into subsequent production activities, since this can have adverse effects on domestic producers that use these inputs. Indeed, protectionist policies of this type may have long-run adverse effects on the protected industry, since potential customers may choose to locate abroad and, as a result, not be well-positioned to purchase the input from U. S. suppliers even after protection is no longer necessary. In addition, poorly designed protectionist efforts can trigger trade wars, as foreign governments retaliate to unjustifiable U. S. trade restraints. Indeed, the threat of spiraling beggar-thy-neighbor policies continues to be a key reason for supporting free trade, even in a world that offers strategic opportunities. Reference: â€Å"Detroit Battle: The Cost Gap,† New York Times, May 28, 1983, pp. 35, 37. Baldwin R. , U. S. Tariff Policy: Formation and Effects,† study prepared for the Bureau of International Labor Affairs, U. S. Department of Labor, June 1976. Benvignati A. , â€Å"The Commodity Composition of U. S. Intra-firm Exports,† FTC, unpublished, 1985. Drucker P. , â€Å"Where Union Flexibility’s Now a Must,† Wall Street Journal, September 23, 1985, p. 30. Economic Report of the President, U. S. Council of Economic Advisers. Washington, D. C. : U. S. Government Printing Office, annual editions from 1972 to 1987. Landau R. , and N. Rosenberg (eds. ), The Positive Sum Strategy, Washington, D. C. : National Academy Press, 1986. Landau R. , and N. Rosenberg (eds. ), The Positive Sum Strategy, Washington, D. C. : National Academy Press, 1986. Marston R. , â€Å"Assessing Japanese Competitiveness,† NBER Reporter, Winter 1986/ 1987, pp. 12-16. Maskus K. , The Changing Structure of Comparative Advantage in American Manufacturing, Ann Arbor, Mich. : UMI Research Press, 1981. McCulloch R. , â€Å"Research and Development as a Determinant of U. S. International Competitiveness,† Harvard Economic Research Discussion Paper 609, March 1978. Tarr D. , â€Å"Trade Deficits, Trade Policy and the Value of the Dollar,† paper for conference, Trade Policy: Free or Fair? , November 19, 1985. How to cite American International Competitiveness, Papers

Problems In The United States Educational System Essay Example For Students

Problems In The United States Educational System Essay Today, the way the educational system works in the U.S. concerns a large number of people in this country. Only 25% of adults have a great deal of confidence in the people running education, according to the General Social Survey, down from 49% in 1974 (Russel 4). A lot of discussions have been held to find the best ways to improve teaching methods. At the same time, people recognize that a very valuable solution to increase the level of education in the United States is to look at some problems that cause difficulties and hamper the enhancement of the quality of education. The first step is to define these problems. As in every country, the U.S. wants to develop its national standards in education and wants them to be high. This has always been a government function. Being democratic, the government is trying to fit the qualities of democracy into the way to set these standards. Of course, this is not an easy task since this country has a very diverse population. To please everybody has always been an almost impossible task. Despite this impossibility, national standards have already been set. If a visitor from another nation was dropped into an American public school classroom without knowing the state or the region, he or she would be likely to see the same lesson taught in the same way to children of the same age (Ravitch 9). Everything seems right except the fact that the abilities of children are different. Not everybody is able to study at a college; not everybody wants to continue being educated. It is obvious that every country wants to produce as many educated people as possible. But, a t the same time, every country needs workers because, regardless of the fast development of technology, there is still a great necessity for human labor. To satisfy all the necessities of the country, the government should provide different kinds of education. This does not mean that we need to eliminate all of the standards; they could be set in each field of education. Although standards are set, there is still a very big difference in teaching methods in different schools. Perhaps, the most serious problem starts in high schools: some schools provide a higher level of education than others. Students from most city schools graduate with the confidence in their knowledge; their level of education is high enough to attend a university. On the other hand, students from small towns, suburbs, and villages do not have the opportunity to get that kind of education because schools in small areas of the United States can not provide the same level of education as schools in large cities. The democratic idea of everybody having an equal education is breached. The high school problem further extends to most of the nations colleges and universities. Students that come to colleges do not have the same level of knowledge. This could be proved by the results of the ACT (American College Test). According to the information provided by the ACT, Inc., out of all the students who took the test in 1997 (959,301), almost the same number of students scored 27 (36,566) as those who scored 14 (36,100). To solve this problem the general education program was brought into the college curriculum. It provides every college student with basic knowledge and, at the same time, balances the general level of education. It seems to be a perfect way to solve the problem of inequality in the educational system. This would be acceptable if it did not impede the system itself. A lot of students that have already gotten enough general education are held back because they are required to take the courses they already had. Most of them think that it is a waste of time and money. The other significant problem is the dropout level in the U.S. colleges. In states with high postsecondary matriculation rates, the college dropout rates can run as high as two thirds?about one half of those who try the baccalaureate college game will fail (Gray 530). This means that around 50% of those who attempt to go to college do not get their degrees, thus wasting their time and money. Personal and family problems are the most general reasons for students to drop out. Yet, there are a lot of students who once were convinced by their parents and teachers to continue education, but now realized that they can live without it and that there are ways to make good money having no college education. These students attitudes toward the higher education influence the decline of national standards in education. For better understanding, it would be appropriate to draw a parallel between the educational systems in Russia and the United States. In Russia, people that do not want to continue their education in college are not required to finish high school. Thus, the last two years in high school provide those students who are willing to go to college with the necessary amount of general education, so that, after graduating from high school, they are well prepared to start working on their college degrees. But there is still one concern: Russian high school students are overloaded. In the United States, high school students do not have such intense studies and as much homework as students in Russia. They have a lot of free time; that may be one reason American teen-agers experiment with cigarettes, alcohol, drugs, and sex at earlier age than Russian teen-agers, and that hampers them to perform well in school. The other reason for poor performance in school could be the recent decrease of adult supervision in both countries. Today, parents, working more than in any other years, rely on their school communities and pay less attention to their childrens studies. It an axiom of ? education that parents are partners in their childrens education (Berkowitz 47), but today it is more often not the situation. These deficiencies show that neither of these countries has a perfect high school education system. A compromise of the two systems might be a better choice. The only way to create this is to cooperate: to share experiences and ideas. With all its own problems, the U.S. seems to have even more of them when compared to the other countries. It has become rather fashionable, on all sides of the political spectrum, to bemoan the failed American public school system and to envy the education systems in Japan, Germany and other industrialized countries(Aviel 130). Various studies of educational achievements in the United States, some of which were conducted by such prestigious institutions as the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), have been showing how poor the academic performance of American students is compared to Asian and European ones. The studies have emphasized that most of the U.S. high school students do not pay enough attention to their studies, do not do enough homework, and do not have responsible attitudes toward their education. This continues to be the situation in colleges and most of the time appears to be the main reason of the high percentage of dropouts. Great Expectations EssayObviously, there was enough proof presented to provide a fair defense to the efficiency of the teaching methods in the U.S. schools. Then the question arises: What is the reason of the poor performance of American students? Perhaps the main factor that directly influences the decline of the students performance is the attitude the students themselves have toward their studies and education in general. Interesting facts were revealed during an interview with Maxim Sinitsyn, an instructor of Economics 112 at the Southern Illinois University at Edwardsville (SIUE). He allows his students to retake all the quizzes and tests if they do poorly on them. Out of 120 students (two sections), only three students were really concerned about their grades and came to retake the test after spending more time preparing for it. However, the most interesting fact is that about 10% of the class received failing grades. This tells us that most of the students either do not care about their grades at all or just do not try to improve their results when they are given an opportunity to do so. Here are some other statistical facts that are based on the survey of 250,000 freshmen from 464 institutions: ? 36.0% say that they were frequently bored in the class? 34.5% say they missed class or an appointment because they overslept ? only 33.9% in 1997 spent six or more hours a week studying or doing homework ? (McEachern 1). This survey has been conducted every year, and, every year, the results are getting worse. Of course, to find a solution to the problem that centers on the apathetic attitude of the students toward education is almost an impossible task because it is impractical to make the students study better. Yet, a good idea could be to increase the requirements in the nations high schools, especially the homework requirements. Home assignments help to review the new material studied in class, increase understanding, correct errors, and give a good oppor tunity to practice (Berkowitz 46). If all these purposes of homework were accomplished, the performance of the students would greatly improve. Also, the increase in the number of classes that students take during the school year would keep them busier and leave less free time for doing the wrong things. Students in the U.S. schools are treated more carefully than students in other countries. They are provided with enthusiastic teachers and perfect equipment, with a variety of financial aid programs that are available in most of the schools, and, finally, with a lot of opportunities to succeed in their studies; in most of the schools, especially private ones, each student will get an individual approach. For example, if you need special testing conditions, such as enlarged type or extended time, you provide documentation of your disability to the College Board or American College Testing (Smith 14). It is absurd not to use all these opportunities and to waste time and money trying to get any education just to assure oneself of having a high salary, forgetting that the real purpose of education is getting more knowledge and increasing ones ability to function more effectively in the society. The government aims its efforts to raise the overall level of education in the United States, and, by doing this, it hopes to bring the whole country forward in its quest for prosperity. To accomplish this goal should not only be the governments, but also the whole societys striving. Since the level of education is one of the most important determinants of the nations standard of living, everybody in this country has to assume these responsibilities in order to make any educational reforms proposed by the government successful. BibliographyWorks CitedAcademic Information. ACT Information School Profile (Class of 1996): n. pag. Online. Internet. 30 Mar. 1998. Available http://www.briarcrest.com/bcs/academic.html. American education: The good, the bad, and the task. Phi Delta Kappa Apr. 1993: 619+. Aviel, David. A closer examination of American education. Childhood Education Spring 1997: 130+. Berkowitz, Robert. Helping with homework: A parents guide to information problem-solving. Emergency Librarian Mar./Apr. 1998: 45-47. Gray, Kenneth. The baccalaureate game: Is it right for all teens? Phi Delta Kappa Apr. 1996: 528+. McEachern, William A. The Max for the Minimum. The teaching economist. Issue 15. Spring 1998. Nelson, F. Howard. How and How Much the U.S. Spends On K-12 Education: An International Comparison. Mar. 1996: n. pag. Online. Internet. 9 Mar.1998. Available http://www.aft.org/research/reports/interntl/sba.htm. Ravitch, Diane. 50 states, 50 standards?: The continuing need for national voluntarystandards in education. The Brookings Review Summer 1996: 6+. Rehder, Robert R. Education and Training: Have the Japanese Beaten Us Again? Personnel Journal Jan. 1983: 42. Russel, Cheryl. Whats wrong with schools? American Demographics Sep. 1996: 4+. Sinitsyn, Maxim I. The Results of a Test. (30 Mar. 1998). Smith, Greg. How to beat the SAT/ACT blues Career World Nov. 1995: 13+. Sternberg, Robert J. Extra Credit for Doing Poorly. New York Times 25 Aug. 1997, late ed.: sec.A: 23. Strengths and weaknesses of American education. Phi Delta Kappa Apr. 19Education Essays